Soil Cone Penetration Resistance Research Articles

Bentonite effects on soil physical properties and millet yield components in a semi-arid region in China

Soil structure plays a critical role in agroecosystems because it controls soil air and water capacity, nutrient availability, and crop root growth. A field experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of bentonite on soil relative water content, soil cone penetration resistance, soil bulk density, aggregate size distribution, and millet crop yield components in a semi-arid region in northern China from 2011 to 2015. Treatments consisted of six bentonite rates (0, 6, 12, 18, 24, and 30 Mg·ha−1) applied only in the initial year. Addition of bentonite significantly increased soil relative water throughout the profile (0–60 cm) and aggregates in 0.25–2 mm class in 0–40 cm depth; it significantly decreased soil bulk density, soil cone penetration resistance, and aggregates in 0.053–0.25 mm class in the 0–40 cm depth. All of the bentonite treatments significantly increased 1000-kernel weight and panicle number up to 16% and 33%, respectively, but did not affect kernels per spike. Treatment with 24 Mg·ha−1 bentonite achieved the greatest effect on all the soil physical parameters and crop yield components averaged over all years; the highest application rate (30 Mg·ha−1) had an increasing effect over time. This study indicates that application of bentonite improves soil health in sandy-loam soil in a semi-arid region, and thus it would help promote sustainable agriculture development in regions with similar soil and climate.

The effect of machine traffic zones associated with field headlands on soil structure in a survey of 41 tilled fields in a temperate maritime climate

Machinery traffic imposes a negative effect on soil structure, leading to soil compaction. Studies to date have primarily focused on the influence of applied wheel loads on soil structure. Few studies have assessed the impact of commercial farm operations on soil structure and crop performance, particularly on field headlands in a temperate maritime climate such as Ireland. A survey was conducted on 41 conventionally managed field sites to investigate the effect of field position (field edge, turning, transition and in-field zones) in relation to machinery operations on soil structure. Soil texture classes ranged from sandy loam to clay loam. All sites used plough-based crop establishment. Soil structural condition was assessed visually using the visual evaluation of soil structure method (VESS) for the topsoil (0−250 mm), and Double Spade below plough depth (250−400 mm). Quantitative soil measurements such as shear strength, bulk density and porosity using soil cores post-harvest, and soil cone penetration resistance were taken at two time points in the crop growth cycle. For most measurements of soil structure, the in-field zone of least machinery traffic produced the best scores (Sq 2.81 &DS 2.48), and the turning zone returned the poorest scores in the 0−250 mm soil layer (Sq 3.31 &DS 2.91). The strongest quantitative scores for the in-field and turning zones, respectively, were for trowel penetration resistance in the upper (2.49 & 3.20) and lower (3.41 & 4.05) soil depth layers and for shear vane (38.17 & 53.59 kPa) for the same zones. The visual assessments and some of the quantitative measurements (0−250 mm soil layer) followed the zone order trend of: turning, field edge, transition and in-field, for increasing machinery traffic. The results show that the visual soil indicators used in this study are more sensitive than quantitative soil measurements such as soil bulk density (ρb) or porosity (TP and MP) at detecting soil structural differences between zones, particularly below plough depth (>250 mm soil depth).

Pipeline right‐of‐way construction activities impact on deep soil compaction

AbstractA 762‐mm‐diameter pipe 1,886 km long was installed to transfer crude oil in the USA from North Dakota to Illinois. To investigate the impact of construction and restoration practices on long‐term soil productivity and crop yield, vertical soil stresses induced by a Caterpillar (CAT) pipe liner PL 87 (475 kN vehicle load) and semi‐trailer truck (8.9 kN axle load) were studied in a farm field. Soil properties (bulk density and cone penetration resistance) were measured on field zones within the right‐of‐way (ROW) classified according to construction machine trafficking and subsoil tillage (300‐mm‐depth tillage and 450‐mm‐depth tillage in two repeated passes) treatments. At 200 mm depth from the subsoiled surface, the magnitude of peak vertical soil stress from trafficking by the semi‐truck trailer and CAT pipe liner PL 87 was 133 kPa. The peak vertical soil stress at 400 mm soil depth appeared to be influenced by vehicle weight, where the Caterpillar pipe liner PL 87 created soil compaction a magnitude of 1.5 greater than from the semi‐trailer truck. Results from the soil bulk density and soil cone penetration resistance measurements also showed the ROW zones had significantly higher soil compaction than adjacent unaffected corn planted fields. Tillage to 450 mm depth alleviated the deep soil compaction better than the 300‐mm‐depth tillage as measured by soil cone penetration resistance within the ROW zones and the unaffected zone. These results could be incorporated into agricultural mitigation plans in ROW construction utilities to minimize soil and crop damage.

Effect of Soft Rock Amendment on Soil Cone Penetration Resistance and Bulk Density in Mu Us Sandy Land

Effect of soft rock as soil amendment on soil cone penetration resistance and bulk density was investigated in a field experiment in a sandy soil in Mu Us Sandy Land of China in 2012-2014. Treatments includes four rates of soft rock to sandy soil in volume (0:1, 1:1, 1:2 and 1:5) were applied only in the first year. Adding soft rock amendments decreased soil cone penetration resistance and bulk density. The treatment with rate of 1:1 (soft rock to sandy soil in volume) had the greatest effect on soil cone penetration resistance and bulk density averaged over the three years.

Effect of soft rock amendment on soil hydraulic parameters and crop performance in Mu Us Sandy Land, China

Effect of soft rock as soil amendment on soil moisture, water storage, saturated hydraulic conductivity, soil cone penetration resistance, bulk density, water use efficiency and yield of corn (Zeamays L.) was investigated in a field experiment in a sandy soil in Mu Us Sandy Land of China in 2012–2014. Treatments includes four rates of soft rock to sandy soil in volume (0:1, 1:1, 1:2 and 1:5) were applied only in the first year. Adding soft rock amendments increased soil moisture, soil water storage and water hold water holding capacity; decreased soil saturated hydraulic conductivity, soil cone penetration resistance and bulk density. All soft rock amendments significantly (P < 0.05) increased grain yield and above-ground biomass, and improved water use efficiency in all three years. Grain yield increases ranged from 67.8% to 160.1%, above-ground biomass increases ranged from 54.0% to 143.3%, and water use efficiency increases ranged from 11.3% to 46.6%. The treatment with rate of 1:1 (soft rock to sandy soil in volume) had the greatest effect on soil physical properties averaged over the three years. The treatment with rate of 1:2 had the greatest effect on crop performance averaged over the three years. Soft rock amendments showed promise for improving soil hydraulic parameters and crop yield in Mu Us Sandy Land, and deserve further research.

Band tillage with fertilizer application for unpuddled transplanting rice in northeast of China

Many technological innovations have been developed in agriculture for rice cultivation. Farmers still rely on intensive soil tillage, broadcasting fertilizer, excess irrigation water and labor for rice production. Rice cultivation under unpuddled condition in band-tillage (BT) is a new alternative rice cultivation system in the regions where rainfall, fresh water resources, fertilizers and labors are limited. Therefore, the concept of inter-row BT (T-shaped) with row fertilizer application in soils for unpuddled transplanted rice cultivation (T1) was carried out at Fangzheng, Harbin in the northeast of China. The improved system (T1) was compared with traditional practices (T2) in randomized complete block design with three replications. T2 was done with removal of crop residue, full tillage, broadcasting fertilizer and puddled soils by using the conventional machine. Test results showed that all parameters were satisfied and met the requirements of agronomic performances. The variations of fertilizing stability and evenness were 1.84% and 1.72%, respectively. Soil cone penetration resistance was less in T1 than T2 after tillage. Irrigation water was saved by 26.3% in treatment T1 as compared with T2 for wet land preparation, and wet soil resistance depth had no significant difference. Planting depth was significantly different between the treatments which was affected by intensive tillage and puddling in T2 as compared with T1. Soil temperature was nearly similar, but comparatively 0.23°C (on average) higher than traditional system throughout the crop growing season. Crop growth rate and grain yield increased by 8.5% and 5.3%, respectively in band till with fertilizer placed compared to conventional practices of puddled transplanting. The unit production cost (￥/kg of grain yield) was found lower by 12.3% in treatment T1 than T2. The output-input ratio was marginally greater in treatment T1 (1.51) as compared to T2 (1.32). Short-term findings suggest that inter-row BT system with row fertilizer application could be used in unpuddled rice farming system instead of traditional puddled rice cultivation. Keywords: conservation agriculture, tillage system, unpuddled rice, irrigation, water saving, economics DOI: 10.3965/j.ijabe.20160904.1673 Citation: Sarker K K, Xu C L, Wang X Y, Li M J, Li L H, Liu G M. Band tillage with fertilizer application for unpuddled transplanting rice in northeast of China. Int J Agric & Biol Eng, 2016; 9(4): 73－83.

Effect of synthetic and natural water absorbing soil amendment soil physical properties under potato production in a semi-arid region

Effect of synthetic and natural water absorbing soil amendments on soil physical properties, fresh tuber yield and size of potato production was investigated in a field experiment in a semi-arid region in northern China in 2010–2012. Treatments included two different synthetic water absorbing amendments (potassium polyacrylate-PAA, polyacrylamide-PAM) and one natural amendment (humic acid-HA), both as single amendments, and compound amendments (natural combined with a synthetic) and a no amendment control. Soil amendments had highly significant effect (P≤0.01) on soil water holding capacity, soil cone penetration resistance and soil aggregate size fractions, but had no significant effect (P>0.05) on soil bulk density. Soil amendments increased fresh tuber yield by 4.2–32.9%, increased the proportion of tuber size category 1 (>150g) and decreased size category 3 (<75g) in all the three years. The compound amendment, with PAM+HA, showed best effect of all amendment treatments on soil physical properties in potato production, and deserves further research.

Soil Compaction in Sugarcane Fields Induced by Mechanization

Problem statement: Recently in Thailand, the problem of soil compaction, especially associated with more mechanized sugarcane production, has drawn attention from both the government and private sectors. Approach: To understand this problem, investigations of soil compaction using cone penetration resistance and bulk density were conducted in 16 sugarcane fields with 10 fields involving mechanized farming and 6 field's mainly manual labor farming. Results: It was found that the highest bulk density was 1.78 kg m-3 with mechanized farming while the lowest value was 1.24 kg m-3 in the fields cultivated using manual labor. The average value of soil bulk density samples under mechanized farming was 12.6% significantly higher than under manual labor. Cone penetration resistance across cane rows could be significantly divided into two layers at a depth of 45 cm, with the lower layer having higher penetration resistance. The average value of penetration resistance under mechanized farming was 23.3% higher than from manual labor. Cone penetration resistance values exceeded 2 MPa, especially for the fields with more years with ratoon canes and in fields subjected to mechanized farming. Under manual labor farming, the soil cone penetration resistance across cane rows showed a pattern of less scattering at depths less than 45 cm. Conclusion: Soil compaction induced by mechanization was clarified to some extent.

Soil strength assessment using threshold probability approach on soils from three agro-ecological zones in Eritrea

Soils in many agro-ecological zones in Eritrea, a country in sub-Saharan Africa, are low in productivity due to erosion, low organic matter and poor soil management. Recently, mechanised farming has been intensively practiced to increase agricultural food production. However, the use of heavy machinery and vehicles can cause soil compaction that reduces soil productivity and crop yield. A study was conducted to determine the in-situ soil compaction and the probability of exceeding a root restricting threshold penetration resistance (PR) value of 2 MPa in three agro-ecological zones that varied in soil type, topography and climate. Soil cone penetration resistance measurements were taken up to a depth of 600 mm in 30 m by 30 m field plots with three replicates located in the three agro-ecological zones. Simultaneously, core samples were collected to determine soil moisture and bulk density from surface and subsurface soil layers. In all the soils, moisture contents during soil penetration resistance measurements were nearly the same as the field capacity soil moisture content (−10 kPa soil moisture suction). Penetration resistance values measured from 0 to 600 mm were averaged in depth increments of 100 mm. For clay loam (Adiguadad) and loam (Sheeb) soils, the penetration resistance values up to a soil depth class of 0–300 mm were statistically insignificant and categorised as minimum mechanical impedance to root growth (<1.0 MPa). In the sandy loam soils (Western lowland soil) the penetration resistance reached 2 MPa at 250 mm depth implying strong mechanical impedance to roots. Logistic regression analysis indicated that the probability of exceeding 2 MPa was significantly affected by soil moisture, bulk density and soil type. The probability increased with bulk density and decreased with soil moisture for clay loam, loam and sandy loam soils.

Residue management and tillage effects on soil-water storage and grain yield of dryland wheat and sorghum for a clay loam in Texas

Dryland wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.) and grain sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) are often grown using a wheat–sorghum-fallow (WSF) crop rotation on the semiarid North American Great Plains. Precipitation stored during fallow as soil water is crucial to the success of the WSF rotation. Stubble mulch-tillage (SM) and no-tillage (NT) residue management practices reduce evaporation, but the sparse residue cover produced by dryland crops, particularly sorghum, is insufficient to reduce soil crusting and runoff. Subsoil tillage practices, e.g., paratill (PT) or sweep (ST), fracture infiltration limiting soil layers and, when used with residue management practices, may increase soil-water storage and crop growth. Our objectives were to compare the effects of PT to 0.35 m or ST to 0.10 m treatments on soil cone penetration resistance, soil-water storage, and dryland crop yield with NT and SM residue management. Six contour-farmed level-terraced watersheds with a Pullman clay loam (US soil taxonomy: fine, mixed, superactive, thermic Torrertic Paleustoll; FAO: Kastanozems) at the USDA—Agricultural Research Service, Conservation and Production Research Laboratory, Bushland, TX, USA (35°11′N, 102°5′W) were cropped as pairs using a WSF rotation so that each phase of the sequence appeared each year. In 1988, residue management plots received PT or ST every 3 years during fallow after sorghum resulting in five treatments: (i) NT–PT, (ii) NT–NOPT, (iii) NT–ST, (iv) SM–PT, and (v) SM–NOPT. Cone penetration resistance was the greatest in NT plots and reduced with PT after 12, 23, and 31 months. Mean 1990–1995 soil-water storage during fallow after wheat was greater with NT than with SM, but unaffected by PT or ST. Dryland wheat and sorghum grain yields, total water use, and water use efficiency (WUE) were not consistently increased with NT, however, and unaffected by PT or ST tillage. We conclude, for a dryland WSF rotation, that: (1) NT increased mean soil-water storage during fallow after wheat compared to SM, and (2) ST and PT “subsoil” tillage of a Pullman did not increase water storage or yield. Therefore, NT residue management was more beneficial for dryland crop production than subsoil tillage.

Measurements of Mouldboard Plow Draft: II. Draft-Soil-Crop and Yield-Draft Associations

The primary objective of this investigation was to evaluate some potential causal associations between draft derived from a 3-bottom mouldboard plow during normal fall field operations and soil-crop properties at a field site near Winchester, Ontario, Canada. A secondary objective was to investigate, in a preliminary manner, associations between draft and crop yield (corn, soybean, and wheat). Regression tree analysis indicated that draft variability was best explained by field location, crop type, soil cone penetration resistance in the plow layer, and soil texture in the plow layer. Draft was found to generally increase with cone penetration resistance in the plow layer and soil clay content. Corn yields were negatively associated with draft. The reverse was true for the soybean yields, and a combination of negative and positive draft vs. yield relationships existed for the wheat plots. The overall results indicated that draft data collected during normal field operations can be useful for producers interested in identifying areas in the field where soil strength/compaction might be problematic with regard to crop yields.