Softwood Plantations Research Articles

Dung beetles of the Kibale Forest, Uganda; comparison between virgin and managed forests

It is commonly believed that the vast majority of insect species living in tropical forests do not survive in areas that have been clear-cut. Even species for which resources in clearings are suitable generally disappear. Tropical forest dung beetles exemplify this phenomenon (South America Howden & Nealis 1975, Africa Cambefort 1984, South-East Asia Hanski unpubl.), presumably because of the radical change in microclimate that occurs when forest is cleared (Howden & Nealis 1975). The effects of forestry practices less drastic than clear-cutting on insect faunas remain poorly known (Holloway 1987, Wolda 1987, Wolda et al. 1983). For dung beetles, there are no comparisons between the species assemblages of virgin and managed forests. Here we report such a comparison in the Kibale Forest region in Uganda. The Kibale Forest is a medium-altitude moist evergreen forest in western Uganda (00 27' N, 300 26' E, 1500 m altitude). The forest area is about 550 km2, and is isolated by about 50 km from other forest areas (Struhsaker 1975). The annual rainfall is about 1500 mm with two rainy seasons from late August to early December and from early March to early May. A long-term study of forestry practices in the Kibale Forest has yielded results on treefalls (Skorupa & Kasenene 1984), primates (Skorupa 1986, Struhsaker 1975), small rodents (Basuta & Kasenene 1987, Kasenene 1984) and on elephants, duikers and arthropods (Nummelin 1986, 1989). We trapped beetles with human dung-baited pitfalls in March-May and September-November in 1984-86, closely following the trapping procedure described in Hanski (1983). Traps were placed in two areas of virgin forest (K30 and Ngogo), at two sites of selectively felled forest (Kibale Forest Project study sites K14 and K15), and in two areas of non-native soft-wood plantations (about 20 years old,Pinus caribbaea Morolet and Cupressus lusitanica Mill.). The

Pinus radiatain Victoria—A review of public sector plantation forestry

Summary This review traces the development of the public sector softwood plantation resource in Victoria, the reasons for emphasis on Pinus radiata, the strategies adopted for the management of the plantation program, and the development of organisational structures. Broad policies are formally defined in the Government's Timber Industry Strategy (TIS), framed following the 1985 Timber Industry Inquiry, and more detailed policy positions and directions are seen to be driven by the TIS. A central thrust of the TIS is the recognition of the State's pine plantation program as a major public sector enterprise which is required to be managed with a focus on profitability. In reacting to this requirement, proposed and possible responses of a silvicultural nature include a “Super Trees” master plan, development of plantation classification systems to assist the land purchase program and provide a framework for optimum site-specific silviculture, and attention to upgraded quality control systems over all operational phases of plantation silviculture. Program strategies for which review might be warranted are identified.

The origins of bark-stripping by blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis): implications for management

Blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis Wolf) on the Zomba Plateau, Malawi, damage exotic softwood plantations by bark-stripping. An ecological study was carried out to investigate the causes of this. The history of forestry practice on the Plateau reveals that, though bark-stripping did not start until 1976, plantation of exotic softwoods goes back to the beginning of the century. In the last 20 years the area of plantations close to the core of blue monkey habitat has increased substantially and some significant clearance of natural habitat has occurred. Bark-stripping is practised only by the groups which are in closest contact with the plantations. Its seasonality may be related to rainfall through sap quantity. There is no indication that the persistence of bark-stripping is the result of food shortage or agonistic encounters due to overcrowding. The most likely explanation for the genesis of bark-stripping is the encroachment of large blocks of plantations, combined with some clearance of natural habitat in 1973–74. The mechanism proposed for the initiation and maintenance of bark-stripping is a combination of temporary food shortage caused by travel through young plantations and a resultant acquired taste for sweet-tasting sap. Leaving areas of indigenous scrub adjacent to the core areas used by these primates and possibly the non-destruction of indigenous food trees within exotic plantations are suggested as ways of alleviating the problem in the future.

2. Future market prospects for Tasmanian forestry investors

Summary Recent official forecasts of sawlog availability in Tasmania are compared with forecasts of Tasmanian consumption to show a widening surplus of sawlogs. Similar forecasts in Tasmania's major export market, Victoria, indicate that that State may soon overcome its present sawlog deficit. It is argued that market success for sawlogs depends partly on the relative costs of converting them to sawn wood. Recent trends in State averages for those costs are compared for Victoria's main or potential suppliers—Tasmania, South Australia, New Zealand and Victoria itself. The results indicate that States basing their sawmilling industries on softwood plantations have less pronounced cost increases, and thus have better future marketing prospects. The implication is made that for eventual marketing success, private forestry investors should concentrate on softwood plantations or hardwood forests with equivalent utilisation characteristics.

The trouble with pines! Public criticism of softwood plantation development

Summary The marked escalation in softwood planting in Australia over recent years has coincided with an increase in public awareness and criticism of forestry, particularly with regard to possible adverse environmental effects of plantation development activities. Without attempting to judge the validity or otherwise of the criticisms the paper briefly examines the types of criticism being levelled at softwood planting and the effects of such criticism on planting programmes and the foresters implementing them. The actions taken to date in response to this criticism are outlined and some proposals are made concerning the future management of softwood plantation development.

Some social and economic consequences of intensive forestry

Summary State-wide statistics in wood production and conversion in Victoria (86 per cent of home-grown logs from eucalypt forests) and South Australia (virtually 100 per cent conifer (radiata pine) production) are studied. Substantial differences are identified in a range of welfare variables (incomes, employment, prices, environment) for manufacturers, their employees, growers, and the community at large. These differences are attributed to the different proportions of softwood production in the two States, on the assumption that other things are equal. Some evidence is given to justify this assumption. Hence the results are taken to indicate the welfare consequences that might follow if wood production in Victoria were based entirely on softwood plantations. Given its limitations and assumptions, the study should help in questions concerning the social desirability of developing softwood plantations in Victoria generally.

Phytophthora Cinnamomi Rands in Proposed Softwood Plantation Areas on the Central Tablelands of New South Wales.

Phytophthora Cinnamomi Rands in Proposed Softwood Plantation Areas on the Central Tablelands of New South Wales.

Impact of Softwood Plantations on Rural Economic Development in Australia

SUMMARY Estimates of regional employment and income multipliers were evaluated for a plantation project in Queensland and were used to show the likely impact of a large plantation project on a regional economy. The softwood planting programme in Australia was examined using data from the Queensland project and from South Australian plantations. It was estimated that the workforce based directly and indirectly on Australia's plantations would increase more than fivefold over the present level of 25,000 during the next thirty years and that the major part of this growth will occur in rural areas.

International Comparisons of Trade in Forest Products and some Implications for Australian Forest Policy

SUMMARY The arguments used to justify the rapid expansion of Australia's softwood plantations are based largely on a deficiency of softwoods and the size of the forest products import bill. Australia is deficient in softwoods, but while the forest products import bill is large, it is not excessive compared with that of other net importing countries either on a per capita or per $1000 GNP basis. The comparatively unfavourable export performance of the Australian forest products industry (although partially caused by the defectiveness of the raw material and the low availability of softwood) strongly suggests organisational difficulties within the growing and processing industries. Considerably more attention should be directed towards defining and removing these difficulties because their presence after the year 2000, when Australia is likely to be a net exporter could cause major problems. More reliable and continuously updated econometric studies and projections of consumption and production, and studies...

MAINTENANCE COSTS IN SOFTWOOD PLANTATIONS IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA

SUMMARY Maintenance costs in plantation forestry are largely salaries and wages, and therefore efficient management of staff, labour and methods will help to control these costs which in turn significantly affect profitability. The maintenance costs for softwood plantations in South Australia for three years are given and the costing heads outlined. The manner in which overhead charges are distributed strongly affects maintenance costs. The relation of these costs to area of forest reserve and manpower usage is discussed. Fire protection costs are a significant part of the direct costs in annual maintenance. Firebreak maintenance is a regular charge to fire protection and methods of maintaining firebreaks in South Australia are discussed with a view to increased efficiency. An illustration is given for Mount Gambier Reserve in which more efficient methods of firebreak maintenance have been adopted with a consequent significant reduction in unit costs. Brief mention is made of the management skills which s...

The Softwood Plantations of the East Transvaal and Swaziland

(1952). The Softwood Plantations of the East Transvaal and Swaziland. The East African Agricultural Journal: Vol. 17, No. 4, pp. 188-200.

THE NECESSITY OF ZINC FOR PINUS RADIATA

In Western Australia a number of softwood plantations have been established on poor soils. Of the many species of Pinus planted, only P. radiata and P. pinaster are practicable on many of the areas. Even in these hardy species numerous disorders arise, fundamentally owing to soil poverty. Soil analyses (5) show that phosphate is extraordinarily low in the majority of cases. At the request of the Forests Department of Western Australia, the nutrition of Pinus radiata in culture solution was studied. Field experiments (4, 5) had shown that zinc deficiency, and probably phosphate deficiency, were the most common causes of disease. Zinc spraying, and fertilizing with superphosphate, have been resorted to on a large scale. A number of puzzling features related to ''rosetting'' (as the zinc deficiency disease is called) require an explanation, such as the very slow response to even large applications of a zinc salt to the soil, and the favorable results often obtained with superphosphate. There is reason to believe that the soil contains sufficient zinc for the needs of the plant, but that it is in some way rendered unavailable. The unavailability seems to be accentuated by clearing and burning of the native forest or scrub. It is conceivable that burning, followed by heavy rains, will result in almost complete loss of zinc from the surface layers (3) of a deep sandy soil such as the one in question. The problem is further complicated by the mycorrhizal habit of the pine. One would expect the associated fungal mycelium to be a more capable assimilator of zinc than the roots of non-mycorrhizal pines. And in fact analyses of fructifications of the mycorrhizal fungus indicate a much higher concentration of zinc than in healthy leaves of Pinus radiata. This suggests the possibility that in a zinc deficient soil, the fungus exerts a priority over the limited amount of zinc absorbed by the mycorrhizae. Field trials (5) with diseased trees, using a large number of metals (including zinc, copper, manganese, boron, molybdenum, cobalt, iron, and magnesium) applied by injection, or by spraying the foliage with dilute solutions, showed that zinc alone remedied the rosetting.'' This indicated that the disease is due to a deficiency of zinc, a conclusion which is supported by analyses in which the needles of resetted,'' cured, and healthy untreated plants, exhibited a fairly definite increasing gradation of zinc content. It is not yet known, however, whether rosetting ' ' will subsequently recur in trees which have been cured by spraying, and the spray-