Soft Wheat Flour Research Articles

Investigation of Digestibility In Vitro and Physicochemical Properties of A‐ and B‐Type Starch from Soft and Hard Wheat Flour

ABSTRACTIn this study, the functional properties of A‐ and B‐type wheat starch granules from two commercial wheat flours were investigated for digestibility in vitro, chemical composition (e.g., amylose, protein, and ash content), gelatinization, retrogradation, and pasting properties. The branch chain length and chain length distribution of these A‐ and B‐type wheat starch granules were also determined using high‐performance anion exchange chromatography (HPAEC). Wheat starches with different granular sizes not only had different degrees of enzymatic hydrolysis and thermal and pasting properties, but also different molecular characteristics. Different amylose content, protein content, and branch chain length of amylopectin in A‐ and B‐type wheat starch granules could also be the major factors besides granular size for different digestibility and other functional properties of starch. The data indicate that different wheat cultivars with different proportion of A‐ and B‐type granular starch could result in different digestibility in wheat products.

Effect of Flour Changes Due to Storage on Kasutera Cake Volume

Four kinds of soft wheat flours, Takaragasa gold, Furian, Tokutakaragasa and Aokoma (protein 9.06, 9.30, 9.69 and 10.17%, respectively), which were commercially used for sugar- and protein-rich Kasutera cake, were stored at room temperature (15-25°C ) for 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 months. A Kasutera cake baking test with these stored wheat flours showed that the volume (cm3) of Kasutera cake was gradually increased with elapse of storage period. These wheat flours were fractionated into water solubles, gluten, prime starch (A starch granule) and tailings (mixture of water insoluble proteins, polysaccharides, lipids and B starch granule) fractions using an acetic acid fractionation technique. A gradual increase of the interaction between prime starch and tailings fractions could be observed from the inclusion of the prime starch to the tailings fractions in each wheat flour with storage. It was found that the increase of volume of the Kasutera cake was highly related to the interaction between the prime starch and tailings fractions in the stored wheat flours. Mixograph profiles showed that the hydrophobicity of the wheat flour depended on the storage period. RVA (Rapid Visco Analyser) profiles of these stored wheat flours showed that the onset time became earlier and the peak viscosity increased, likely due to the hydrophobic interaction of flour components.

Influence of Flour Chlorination and Ingredient Formulation on the Quality Attributes of Pancakes

ABSTRACTSoft wheat flour is commonly chlorinated in North America for the production of cakes and pancakes. The oxidative properties of chlorine gas cause chemical modifications to flour components that enhance processing and end‐use functionality of the intended food products. The objectives of this study were 1) to compare how untreated and chlorine‐treated commercial soft wheat flour perform in a standard pancake formulation and 2) to compare how the individual ingredients in a standard pancake formulation influence quality attributes of pancakes made with untreated as well as chlorine‐treated commercial soft wheat flour. Two portions of the same soft wheat flour, one chlorinated and the other un‐chlorinated, were used to study the effects of flour chlorination on batter viscosity, geometry, and texture quality attributes of pancakes. Commercial pancake formula ingredients were evaluated at different concentrations for their individual influence on quality attributes of pancakes. Differences in means (ANOVA) were used to evaluate the influence of the sources of pancake quality variation. The results indicate that flour chlorination had a significant influence on pancake batter viscosity, geometry, and texture, with chlorinated flour producing a more viscous batter, a larger and thicker pancake that was softer, more cohesive and resilient. The evaluation of a wide range of formula ingredient concentrations indicated that none could wholly substitute for chlorination. Individual ingredients did dramatically influence pancake batter viscosity, geometry, and texture, especially soy flour, dextrose, and leavening agents. However, sucrose and shortening had nonsignificant influences on the end‐use quality of both chlorinated and unchlorinated pancakes.

Untersuchungen zu DON-Gehalten in Getreideerzeugnissen aus dem deutschen Einzelhandel im Jahr 2006

Samples of soft wheat flour (n=78), durum wheat semolina (n=6), and pasta (made from durum wheat, n=49) were purchased in January-April 2006 from retail outlets in Hesse, Germany. Samples were analysed for deoxynivalenol (DON) by enzyme immunoassay. The detection limit of the method was 10 μg/kg, with recoveries of 81–85% (RSDr: 12–17%). DON was detected in 84% of all samples, but the contamination level was low. Median/maximum values for DON in wheat flour, wheat semolina, and pasta were 28μg/kg/217 μg/kg, 38μg/kg/203 μg/kg, and 24μg/kg/119 μg/kg, respectively. Compared with results obtained from previous years, significantly lower DON levels were observed in these commodities.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SUGAR‐SNAP COOKIES USING GRANULE SURFACE DEPROTEINATED WHEAT STARCH

ABSTRACT The physical properties of soft wheat starch granule surface proteins and soy flours or isolates, which contribute to the texture of sugar‐snap cookies was studied. Soft wheat flour was deproteinated and cookies were produced containing 0, 10, 20 or 30% soy flour, or one of two types of ground, textured soy flour. Color, fracture force and spread ratio of cookies were determined. Cookies formulated with wheat starch stripped of the starch granule surface proteins exhibited significant alterations in diameter, fracture force, thickness and surface cracking. Cookies containing ground, textured soy flour and protein‐stripped starch granule wheat flour were larger, thinner and had more surface cracking than those produced with nontextured soy flour. Wheat starch granule surface proteins appear to partially mediate the interaction of proteins and starch in a sugar‐snap cookie system.

Front-Face Fluorescence Spectroscopy as a Rapid and Nondestructive Tool for Differentiating Various Cereal Products: A Preliminary Investigation

The potential of intrinsic fluorescence spectroscopy was investigated for differentiating between processed grains (flours, pasta, and semolinas) of different wheat cereal products. A total of 59 samples (e.g., 20 complete Kamut, semicomplete Kamut, and soft wheat flours, 28 pasta, and 11 semolinas manufactured from complete Kamut, semicomplete Kamut, and hard wheat flours) were analyzed by front-face fluorescence spectroscopy. Tryptophan fluorescence spectra were scanned between 305 and 400 nm on samples following excitation at 290 nm. The principal component analysis (PCA) performed on flour spectra clearly differentiated complete Kamut and semicomplete Kamut samples from those produced from complete and semicomplete soft wheat flours. The PCA performed on pasta spectra discriminated samples manufactured from complete Kamut and complete hard wheat flours from those made with semicomplete Kamut and semicomplete hard wheat flours. The best discrimination was obtained from tryptophan spectra recorded on semolinas since the four groups were well discriminated. Correct classification amounting to 61.9% was obtained for pasta spectra. A better classification was obtained for flour and semolina spectra since correct classification amounted to 86.7% and 87.9%, respectively. Front-face fluorescence spectroscopy has the potential to be a rapid, low-cost, and efficient method for the authentication of cereal products.

Determination of Zinc Contents in Iranian Flat Breads

Zinc is an essential element for the maintenance of good health. It is necessary for the activity of several enzymes involved in energy changes and protein formation. Bread is one of the foods that have some zinc. Bread and other cereal products provide the most of calories and protein intakes of Iranian people in cities. Iranian flat breads such as lavash, taftoon, barbari and sangak generally are produced from soft white wheat flours of higher extraction levels compared to western type breads. The diet of Iranian people is more bread and other cereal products provide as much as 50-90 % of total caloric. For zinc monitoring in flat breads, 36 flat bread samples were collected from bakeries in Tehran city in 2004 and analyzed by flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry for zinc metal. The mean and standard deviation of zinc content in lavash, barbari, taftoon and sangak breads were 12.17±1.91, 10.75±2.64, 10.41±3.54 and 14.25±3.56 mg/kg, respectively. Estimated intake of zinc based on consumption of Iranian flat breads is 3.499 mg per person per day. Flat breads are good sources of zinc and they can supply some of zinc requirements of human body for preventing of zinc deficiency.

Effect of structured lipid on alveograph characteristics, baking and textural qualities of soft wheat flour

The effect of substituting canola oil/caprylic acid structured lipid (SL) for partially hydrogenated shortening (at 0, 25, 50, 75, and 100% levels) on the rheology of soft wheat flour dough (28.4% total lipid on flour weight basis, 43% moisture) was determined using the Alveograph. The effect of SL substitution on baking and textural qualities of sugar-snap cookies was also investigated. Addition of shortening to soft wheat flour dough resulted in a significant ( P<0.05) decrease in dough resistance to deformation ( P), dough extensibility ( L), and dough baking strength ( W), suggesting a less developed gluten network. SL substitution for shortening did not affect P and W. The cookies incorporating SL (50 and 75% SL substitution) were similar ( P<0.05) to the shortening control cookies in both baking and textural qualities, but exhibited some baking and textural quality differences at the 25 and 100% SL substitution levels. Correlations ( P<0.05) were found between some Alveograph characteristics, and baking and textural qualities.

Antioxidant activity and nutrient composition of selected cereals for food use

Whole grain products are recommended for healthy diets as being recognized sources of dietary fiber and antioxidant substances. In the present study, four cereals including barley, pearl millet, rye and sorghum which are adapted to the growing conditions in the United Arab Emirates were evaluated in terms of their composition of dietary fiber, resistant starch, minerals and total phenols and antioxidant properties. Antioxidant activity was evaluated on the basis of scavenging capacity of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH ) radicals and 2,2′-azino-di-[3-ethylbenzthiazoline sulphonate] (ABTS + radical cations). The adapted grains exhibited better nutritional quality compared to commercial hard and soft wheat flours, the main ingredients in grain-based food products. They were significantly rich in resistant starch, soluble and insoluble dietary fibers, minerals and antioxidants. Barley had the highest levels of phosphorus, calcium, potassium, magnesium, sodium, copper, and zinc, and the second highest content of iron following millet. Sorghum was exceptionally high in antioxidant activities followed by millet and barley. The antioxidant properties of the three grains were comparable to butylated hydroxytoluene. The nutritional data suggest that the selected grains, particularly barley and sorghum, hold promise as healthy food ingredients.

Expansion capacity of doughs: methodology and applications

An instrument for measuring the expansion capacity of dough was developed based on the application of a known negative pressure and measurement of the height reached by the dough using a dough height tracker. At a negative pressure of 74 cm of Hg, the same maximum heights were reached after expansion at all stages of processing from after mixing to end of proof. For this negative pressure (74 cm Hg), the expanded dough heights measured immediately after mixing for doughs from 9 hard and 10 soft wheat flours coincided closely with the heights reached by corresponding baked loaves ( r=0.99). Pizza doughs were also found to give a good correlation with baked pizza height ( r=0.78, significant at 1% level). The method was used to obtain information about the timing of the effects of bromate addition and flour lipid extraction during processing. An increase in dough expansion capacity from bromate addition was observed only after the final proofing stage. Gas cell fineness of the bread crumb, measured by CrumbScan software, was decreased by bromate addition but gas cell elongation was increased. Effects of lipid removal were different. An increase in expansion capacity occurred at all processing stages and gas cell fineness of the bread crumb was increased. Expansion capacity appears to be an inherent property of a dough and may have potential as a rapid measurement to predict baking performance.

Pasting properties of starch and protein in selected cereals and quality of their food products

In an attempt to improve intake of dietary fibre and antioxidants and quality of whole grain products, whole grain meals from barley, millet, rye and sorghum were evaluated individually and in blends with wheat flour in terms of starch pasting properties and protein heat damage, during cycles of heating and cooling in RVA tests. The whole grain meals were blended with either hard or soft wheat flour and processed into bread, cake, cookie or snack products. The products were then evaluated with regard to physical properties and acceptability. Significant differences were observed between cereals in starch peak, breakdown and setback viscosities as well as in protein peak viscosity. The results showed that RVA could be used to help formulate cereal blends with certain pasting properties. Substitution of wheat flour, with 15% of barley, rye, millet or sorghum whole grain, did not have significant detrimental effects on physical properties or acceptability of pita bread. Additionally, replacement of wheat flour with up to 30% of barley, rye, millet or sorghum whole grain meal had no significant effects on quality of cakes or cookies. A multigrain snack-like food was also developed as a healthy product and was highly acceptable in a sensory test. The developed product would help enhance consumption of whole grain foods, resulting in improved intake of fibre and health-enhancing components.

Differences in the Aleurone Layer Fate Between Hard and Soft Common Wheats at Grain Milling

ABSTRACTIn the milling process, efficient separation between the starchy endosperm and the other grain tissues is a key parameter estimated by ash measurement. Because this separation occurs near the aleurone layer interface, better understanding of this tissue fractionation is critical for a better analysis of the wheat milling behavior. Samples from hard and soft common wheat cultivars that had the same protein content were processed on a pilot mill, and whole grain meals or flour streams were analyzed for ash content. The para‐coumaric acid (p‐CA) and phytic acid flour contents were compared with ash measurement and used as markers of the aleurone cell walls or aleurone cell content, respectively. A greater amount of phytic acid in hard wheat flour compared with soft wheat flour was found and reveals a distinct milling behavior between those wheat classes, mainly at the breaking step. Therefore simple ash content measurement is not sufficient to analyze flour purity. At the reduction stage, quantity of phytic acid increases with the other markers and may result from the overall mechanical resistance of the aleurone tissue. As a consequence, wheat hardness not only determines grain milling behavior but also affects flour composition.

超音波照射が小豆種皮粉の機能性成分と組織構造に及ぼす影響

For the purpose of utilizing the seed coat, a by-product of Adzuki bean jam production, as a food material, the drying and milling of the seed coat, then the seed coat refined with or without ultrasonication (pastes), their respective color tone, proximate component, dietary fiber, mineral components, free amino acids, polyphenols and tissue structures were compared and discussed.The average yield of the seed coat powder was 31.2%. The capacity for water-holding and oil absorption of the seed coat powder was 3 times and 1.6 times higher than soft wheat flour, respectively. The protein, lipid and ash of the seed coat powder refined by ultrasonication slightly decreased, but the carbohydrate and total dietary fiber relatively increased. There was no significant difference among the 9 kinds of minerals, free amino acids and polyphenols. The tissue observation by scanning electron microscopy indicated clearer depressions and winkles on the surface of the seed coat powder treated by ultrasonication compared the unrefined seed coat powder, proving the refining effect of ultrasonication. As a result of a sensory evaluation, a 15-minute ultrasonic cleaning removed any unpleasant odors from the seed coat powder, and the red tint became even darker.

A Rapid, High Throughput Micro Sugar‐Snap Cookie Quality Test Procedure Using Asymmetrical Centrifugal Mixing

ABSTRACTA modified AACC 45‐g flour cookie procedure using asymmetrical centrifuge mixing as a replacement for conventional mixing has been developed. Ingredients are added to a pin cup in the same proportion as in the Approved Method 10‐50D (AACC 2000) sugar‐snap cookie test and mixed in a single step for 15 sec at 2,500 rpm. The dough is then processed and the resulting cookies are scored according to the AACC Approved Method 10–52 40‐g flour micro cookie test method. Cookies produced from a control cookie flour and four commercial soft wheat flours with the new mixing method did not show the characteristic surface cracking patterns normally obtained with conventional three‐stage mixing. However, with the exception of one spread value, no significant differences in spread, thickness, or the ratio of spread to thickness were evident when results were compared with those obtained with the AACC Approved Method 10‐50D 225‐g flour test method using a Hobart mixer equipped with a paddle. Cookies produced from two sets of advanced soft white spring wheat breeder lines, including control cultivars, using the asymmetrical centrifuge mixing procedure were also very comparable in spread, thickness, and ratio compared with those produced using 225 g of flour in the AACC Approved Method. Reproducibility of test results for all cookie parameters for both commercial and advanced plant breeder samples were comparable to the AACC Approved Method 10‐50D 225‐g flour test method. The very short mixing time and the ability to quickly clean or use multiple pin cups should allow very high throughput of flour samples relative to the use of conventional mixers for cookie testing.

Dynamic Rheological and Thermal Properties of Soft Wheat Flour Dough Containing Structured Lipid

ABSTRACT: The effect of substituting canola oil/caprylic acid structured lipid for shortening (at 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% levels) on the viscoelastic and thermal properties of soft wheat flour dough (28.4% total lipid, 43% moisture) was determined using dynamic rheological and differential scanning calorimetry tests. Ambient frequency scans produced higher G″ (loss modulus) and G′ (storage modulus) values at increasing frequencies. Temperature scans revealed rapid G″ and G′ increases for dough heated to above 56 °C, apparently because of starch gelatinization. Three differential scanning calorimetry endothermic peaks were observed at 54 °C, 69 °C, and 93 °C, which were attributed to shortening transition and gelatinization of starch granules.

Rheological Properties of Soft Wheat Flour Doughs: Effect of Salt and Triglycerides

ABSTRACTThe small deformation rheological properties of wheat flour doughs in relation to their structure and hydration were studied by dynamic mechanical thermal analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, and electron spin resonance. The effect of salt and triglycerides was also examined and compared with results we obtained previously on starch dispersions. Moisture content was adjusted to 48 or 60% (w/w, wb). Samples contained 0–16% NaCl (g/100 g of flour‐water) and 0–18% triolein or lard (g/100 g of flour‐water). The obtained results suggested that starch has an active role in determining the evolution of dough rheological characteristics during heating. The main factors controlling rheological behavior during thermal treatment are the volume fraction and deformability of starch granules. Gluten changes the viscoelasticity of the continuous phase and competes with starch for water. The addition of sodium chloride to flour dispersions shifted the structural disorganization and rigidity increased during heating to higher temperatures. At &gt;7% NaCl, the reverse effect was observed. The mechanism controlling the effect of salt on dough rheological behavior was explained in terms of effect on water properties and on starch structure and hydration. Triglycerides had a lubricant effect (i.e., lowering G′ modulus) on the wheat flour dough system. These effects are of great importance for production and quality of bakery products.

Effect of heating temperature on particle size distribution in hard and soft wheat flour

The particle sizes of soft and hard wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) flours at isothermal temperatures were determined by laser diffraction analysis. Flour samples were suspended in water at temperatures ranging from 30 to 80 °C, for 20–60 min. All flour particles exhibited trimodal size distributions, with the particles of the first mode <10 μm, the second mode from 10 to 40 μm, and the third mode from 41 to 300 μm. Control experiments with isolated starch and gluten indicated that the first and second modes were mainly associated with starch granules, while the third mode was related to gluten and particle clusters. Soft wheat flours showed higher volume fractions in the first and second modes, indicating more dissociated starch granules. Particle size distributions of the wheat flours were temperature dependent. At 60 °C, significant changes in particle size and distribution of flours were observed. This result was attributed to swelling of starch granules in response to elevated temperature. As temperature increased, the peak particle size increased. Hard wheat flours had a higher volume fraction of particles ranging above 120 μm at elevated temperature. Our results suggest that the difference in size of single particles and starch–protein aggregates, when comparing soft and hard wheat flour, is due to the strength of starch–protein interactions.

Relationship Between Protein Characteristics and Instant Noodle Making Quality of Wheat Flour

ABSTRACTWe investigated the relationship between the protein content and quality of wheat flours and characteristics of noodle dough and instant noodles using 14 hard and soft wheat flours with various protein contents and three commercial flours for making noodles. Protein content of wheat flours exhibited negative relationships with the optimum water absorption of noodle dough and lightness (L*) of the instant noodle dough sheet. Protein quality, as determined by SDS sedimentation volume and proportion of alcohol‐ and salt‐soluble protein of flour, also influenced optimum water absorption and yellow‐blueness (b*) of the noodle dough sheet. Wheat flours with high protein content (&gt;13.6%) produced instant noodles with lower fat absorption, higher L*, lower b*, and firmer and more elastic texture than wheat flours with low protein content (&lt;12.2%). L* and free lipid content of instant noodles were &gt;76.8 and &lt;20.8% in hard wheat flours of high SDS sedimentation volume (&gt;36 mL) and low proportion of salt‐soluble protein (&lt;12.5%), and &lt;75.7 and &gt;21.5% in soft wheat flours with low SDS sedimentation volume (&lt;35 mL) and a high proportion of salt‐soluble protein (&gt;15.0%). L* of instant noodles positively correlated with SDS sedimentation volume and negatively correlated with proportion of alcohol‐ and salt‐soluble protein of flour. These protein quality parameters also exhibited a significant relationship with b* of instant noodles. SDS sedimentation volume and proportion of salt‐soluble protein of flours also exhibited a significant relationship with free lipid content of instant noodles (P &lt; 0.01 and P &lt; 0.001, respectively). Protein quality parameters of wheat flour, as well as protein content, showed significant relationship with texture properties of cooked instant noodles.

Application of Wheat Meal Solvent Retention Capacity Tests Within Soft Wheat Breeding Populations

ABSTRACTThe solvent retention capacity (SRC) test is a relatively new AACC Approved Method (56‐11) for evaluating soft wheat flour quality. The test measures the ability of flour to retain a set of four solvents (water, 50% sucrose, 5% sodium carbonate, and 5% lactic acid) after centrifugation. The objective of this study was to evaluate the utility of wheat meal sodium carbonate and lactic acid SRC tests and SDS sedimentation volume within three populations of soft spring wheat inbred lines as tools for selecting for improved flour SRC profiles, flour extraction, and cookie and pastry quality. The populations were derived from the crosses Vanna/Penawawa, Kanto 107/IDO488, and M2/IDO470 and were grown in replicated, irrigated trials in 2000 and 2001 near Aberdeen, Idaho. Within each of the three populations, wheat meal sodium carbonate SRC effectively predicted straight‐grade flour sodium carbonate (r = 0.69–0.81) and sucrose SRC (r = 0.74–0.84). Wheat meal sodium carbonate SRC also was negatively correlated with flour extraction and sugar snap cookie diameter. Wheat meal lactic acid SRC predicted straight‐grade flour lactic acid SRC in only one population. In contrast, SDS sedimentation volume predicted straight‐grade flour lactic acid SRC in all three populations (r = 0.74–0.93). Moreover, SDS sedimentation volume and wheat meal sodium carbonate SRC were independent in two of the three populations. This suggests that the SDS sedimentation and sodium carbonate SRC may measure different intrinsic characteristics. Therefore, a combination of sodium carbonate SRC and SDS sedimentation volume analyses of wheat meal may be an efficient approach to selecting toward target SRC profiles, increased flour extraction, and larger sugar snap cookie diameter in soft wheats.

Wheat flour enzymatic amylolysis monitored by in situ (1)H NMR spectroscopy.

Starch enzymatic degradation caused by endogenous hydrolases is studied by in situ NMR spectroscopy on a set of hard and soft wheat flours. The results obtained by two different techniques (HR-MAS and (1)H NMR in solution) are analyzed in terms of a Michaelis-Menten kinetic phenomenological model taking into account the presence of endogenous enzymes and their eventual inactivation. The parameters resulting from the best fit of all experimental data to the kinetic model equations are submitted to a multivariate statistical analysis to assess the role of the oligosaccharides release in distinguishing between hard and soft wheats.