Sock Fabrics Research Articles

Conductive Heat Transfer Prediction of Plain Socks in Wet State

Abstract In this study, an algebraic model and its experimental verification was carried out to investigate the effect of moisture content on the heat loss that takes place due to conduction of sock fabrics. The results show that increasing moisture content in the studied socks caused a significant increase in their conductive heat loss. Plain knitted socks with different fiber composition were wetted to a saturated level, and then their moisture content was reduced stepwise. When achieving the required moisture content, the socks samples were characterized by the Alambeta testing instrument for heat transfer. Three different existing modified mathematical models for the thermal conductivity of wet fabrics were used for predicting thermal resistance of socks under wet conditions. The results from both ways are in very good agreement for all the socks at a 95% confidence level. In the above-mentioned models, the prediction of thermal resistance presents newly a combined effect of the real filling coefficient and thermal conductivity of the so-called “wet” polymers instead of dry polymers. With these modifications, the used models predicted the thermal resistance at different moisture levels. Predicted thermal resistance is converted into heat transfer (due to conduction) with a significantly high coefficient of correlation.

Examining Moisture Management Property of Socks

The wearing comfort of socks can be affected by the fabric properties of liquid moisture management. The present study aims to investigate the relationship between the fabric parameters and moisture management of sock fabrics. The moisture management of socks fabric was measured by the moisture management tester according to AATCC 195-2012. It was found that the cotton sock fabrics were waterproof before washing. This may be due to hydrophobic treatment. The cotton material seems not to be suitable for moisture transfer.

Effect of sock type on foot health

The objective was to determine whether changes in indicators of skin health among participants suffering from diabetes mellitus could be attributable to the type of sock worn (fiber content, structure). Changes in skin health over time (e.g. temperature, skin hardness, transepidermal water loss, stratum corneum hydration) can indicate improvement or deterioration, and these may be related to socks worn. Socks of different structure (single jersey, terry), and of fiber content (merino wool, cotton) were worn over a period of 22 weeks by participants suffering from diabetes mellitus. Each participant was their own control: change over time in skin hardness, stratum corneum hydration, transepidermal water loss and temperatures were monitored. Properties of the sock fabrics were measured as new and after use to determine effects of wear. Limited evidence of improved skin health was attributable to socks composed primarily of wool.

A Multicriteria Decision Approach on Physical Properties of Socks Made from Different Fiber Types

The aim of the study is to investigate the physical properties of sock fabrics made from some new regenerated fibers such as modal, micro modal, bamboo, soybean and chitosan. Also, samples from cotton and viscose fibers were produced in the study for comparison reasons. The results obtained seemed that the new regenerated fibers, especially the soybean fiber may still be preferred for socks, as they have high abrasion resistance as well as bursting strength, which is important for a garment’s life time, in addition to their natural antibacterial property. Also, it was shown that TOPSIS can be a beneficial tool for this kind of researches. By using TOPSIS, a single ranking taking into account preferences of the decision-maker and priorities arranged according to the final goal can be obtained. The data obtained showed that fabrics made from soybean fiber were the best alternative from among all.

Frictional Interaction between Running Sock Fabrics and Plantar Aspect of First Metatarsal Head in Different Moisture Conditions

In a pursuit to further improve the understanding of the factors influencing friction blister formation, friction between running sock textiles and the skin at the first metatarsal head (1MTH) region was investigated in three different moisture conditions (dry, low moisture and wet).Twenty-six participants were recruited and two running sock types were selected based on the variations of their fibre composition and knit structure: 1) a predominantly nylon anti-blister sock and 2) a cotton-rich sock. All friction tests were conducted in controlled room conditions with a temperature of between 20 to 22°C and a relative humidity of 40 to 60% using a bespoke rig developed at the University of Sheffield for foot friction studies. Water was applied to the inside of the plantar region of the sock textiles to different levels using a moisture control protocol. The moisture level of both the 1MTH region and the sock fabrics were monitored throughout testing using a Corneometer® device.Increasing sock moisture above the dry condition was found to increase foot-sock sliding friction for both sock materials tested. No significant correlation was found at the level p < 0.05 between foot hydration level and sliding friction over the hydration range tested. In dry conditions, the cotton-rich sock exhibited lower levels of friction compared with the anti-blister sock. However, in both low moisture and wet conditions, the anti-blister sock showed comparatively lower levels of friction than the cotton-rich sock. This suggests that for intensive athletic events where significant perspiration is likely to occur, the anti-blister sock would provide lower friction. This study offers a new approach to friction testing of sock materials and it is hoped that its outcomes will provide new insights on the preventative measures for friction blisters.

The Impact of Nanosilver Particles On Foot - Odor Producing Microbes

Nanosilver applications have been implicated in paint, plastic, textile and medical industries. Nanosilver particles absorb sweat and in turn avoid pungent smell of feet. The present study aims to determine the antibacterial activity of Ag-coated different sock fabrics and comparing their efficacy in reducing foot-borne resident bacteria. Synthesize of nanosilver particles was performed in various concentrations by wet reduction method using silver nitrate and tri-sodium citrate. Coating of different sock fabrics, cotton, nylon, and mixed cotton and nylon, was carried out by exposing these fabrics to various silver concentrations for 24 hrs. The antibacterial efficacy of the nanosilver-finished fabrics was checked by zone inhibition test and antibacterial test. The coated nylon fabric showed better antimicrobial activity than other fabrics. There was no significant difference found between antibacterial activity and type of fabric. Klebsiella pneumoniae exhibited the smallest inhibition zone, and the inhibition zone increased with increasing silver concentration. The inhibition zones varied according to bacterial species, each species had its own minimum inhibition concentration. The percentages of reduction ranged between 18-80%. Sarcina lutea was highly sensitive to nanosilver particles. The effect of temperature, relative humidity, dirt and oil on the antibacterial activity of silver coated fabrics should be studied in the future.

Thermal and moisture transfer properties of sock fabrics differing in fiber type, yarn, and fabric structure

This study aimed to determine the relative effects of fiber type (fine wool, mid-micron wool, acrylic), yarn type (high-twist, low-twist, single), and fabric structure (single jersey, half-terry, terry) on thermal resistance, water vapor resistance, thermal conductance, water vapor permeability, liquid absorption capacity, and regain of sock fabrics. Fabric structure had the greatest effect on thermal resistance, water vapor resistance, water vapor permeability, liquid absorption capacity, and thermal conductance. Terry fabrics were the most thermal and water vapor resistant, most absorbent, and most conductive. Results were consistent with current understanding of the effect of fabric thickness on thermal and moisture transfer properties when measured under static conditions: However, the effects of yarn type and/or fabric structure of sock fabrics have not previously been explained.

The effect of fiber type, yarn structure and fabric structure on the frictional characteristics of sock fabrics

The objective of this study was to measure the combined effects of fiber type (fine wool, mid-micron wool, acrylic), yarn type (high twist, low twist, single) and fabric structure (single jersey, half-terry, terry) on friction between sock fabrics and a synthetic skin using the horizontal platform method. The effect of weight of a hypothetical wearer and moisture content of a sock fabric were also investigated. Differences among fabrics were analyzed using frictional force traces. Data compared included the static and dynamic friction and coefficients of friction, as well as three new descriptive parameters. All variables investigated affected the frictional characteristics between a sock fabric and a synthetic skin. Single jersey fabrics had the lowest coefficient of static and dynamic friction. Friction between fabric and a synthetic skin was affected most by the applied weight, with the simulated adult weight resulting in a greater frictional force, and higher coefficients of static and dynamic friction. The most important effect of fiber was on the static frictional force and coefficient of static friction of damp fabrics, with fabrics composed of fine wool exhibiting lowest friction, and acrylic fabrics the highest.

Sock fabrics: relevance of fiber type, yarn, fabric structure and moisture on cyclic compression

The objective of this study was to subject dry and damp sock fabrics to repeated compression cycles in order to determine the relative effects of fiber type (fine wool, mid-micron wool, acrylic), yarn type (high twist, low twist, single) and fabric structure (single jersey, half-terry, terry) on fabric compression and recovery from compression. Changes in fabric thickness were measured using a tensile tester and a number of parameters identified and analyzed: retained thickness, recovered thickness, compression to recovery ratio, energy absorption and energy absorption standardized for fabric thickness. The dominant factor was the number of compression cycles, with most change in the thickness retained and recovered evident within the first 10 cycles. The pattern of response of dry and damp fabrics was quite different with, the dry fabrics having a better compression to recovery ratio. Energy absorption was affected strongly by fabric structure, however this was closely related to initial fabric thickness. When fabrics were made damp, fabrics composed of acrylic fibers had a better compression to recovery ratio than fabrics composed of wool.

Heat loss and moisture retention variations of boot membranes and sock fabrics: A foot manikin study

Heat loss and moisture retention properties of footwear were characterized using a walking thermal manikin foot. The same type of military boot was equipped with different membranes: (i) GORE TEX with IQ TEX, (ii) halve OUTDRY, (iii) full OUTDRY, and (iv) OUTDRY with IQ TEX. In a separate experiment a single boot type was used to evaluate four different sock fabrics: (i) wool/polypropylene, (ii) polypropylene, (iii) polypropylene/polyamide, and (iv) wool/polyamide. Both boot membranes and sock fabrics were assessed under three conditions: (i) standstill no sweating, (ii) walking no sweating, and (iii) walking and sweating. The walking rate was set at 15 step min−1 and the sweat rates were 9 g h−1 and 12 g h−1, for boot membrane and sock fabric measurements, respectively. Moisture retention was assessed by weighing the footwear components before and after each measurement. GORE TEX with IQ TEX resulted in a higher heat loss during walking without sweating compared to the other membranes (p = 0.017). GORE TEX with IQ TEX retained more moisture in the sock compared to the other membranes (p < 0.001) but also retained more moisture in the inlay sole compared to halve OUTDRY (p = 0.015). No differences in heat loss were found among sock fabrics, while wool/polyamide retained more moisture compared to polypropylene/polyamide (p = 0.036). Furthermore, a moisture vapour transmission rate of 61.2 ± 6.6 g m−2 h−1 was calculated for all sweating conditions. Finally, the measurements suggest that no pumping effect takes place in the measured footwear under the present conditions.Relevance to industry: Understanding heat loss and moisture retention of footwear is necessary for optimization of footwear for blister incidence and (thermal) comfort.

The Effect of Two Sock Fabrics on Perception and Physiological Parameters Associated with Blister Incidence: A Field Study

The goal of the present study was to investigate differences in perception and skin hydration at the foot of two sock fabrics with distinct moisture properties in a realistic military setting. Thirty-seven military recruits wore two different socks (PP: 99.6% polypropylene and 0.4% elastane, and BLEND: 50% Merino-wool, 33% polypropylene, and 17% polyamide), one on each foot. Measurements were carried out after a daily 6.5-km march on 4 days. Each participant rated temperature, dampness, friction, and comfort for each foot. On a daily selection of participants, skin hydration was measured on three sites of both feet using a corneometer, and moisture content of the socks was determined. BLEND was rated to be cooler, less damp, and more comfortable (P < 0.05). Two out of three skin sites were drier for BLEND than PP (P < 0.05). Moreover, BLEND stored 2.9 ± 0.3 times more moisture compared to PP. Thus, under the present conditions, socks such as BLEND are to be preferred over polypropylene socks.

The Effect of Two Sock Fabrics on Physiological Parameters Associated with Blister Incidence: A Laboratory Study

The goal of the present study was to investigate physiological effects, mainly at the level of the foot, of two sock fabrics with distinct moisture properties. Twelve participants wore two different socks, one on each foot. The following two sock types were used: PP: 99.6% polypropylene and 0.4% elastane and BLEND: 50% Merino wool, 33% polypropylene, and 17% polyamide. The participants walked three times on a treadmill at 5 km h(-1), with no gradient for the first and third phase and a 10% upward inclination for the second walking phase. The microclimate temperature between the boot and foot was measured during walking. Preceding and following the walking phases, additional measurements were carried out at the level of the foot, i.e. skin temperature and skin hydration on three locations and skin friction between the posterior surface of the calcaneus and a glass plate. In addition, the moisture absorption of boots and socks was determined. Differences between the sock fabrics were found for weight gain and microclimate temperature: (i) PP tended to hold less water compared to BLEND, (ii) the boot's microclimate temperature resulted in larger values for BLEND measured at the dorsal surface at the level of the third metatarsal, and (iii) warmer microclimates of the boot were measured for PP compared to BLEND at the distal anterior end of the tibia. The established differences in moisture behavior of both socks did not result in detectable differences in parameters measured on the skin of the foot.

Textile, Physiological, and Sensorial Parameters in Sock Comfort

This paper explores the influence of textile, physiological, and sensorial parameters on sock comfort. Comfort parameters of sport socks were evaluated in two different sport exercises by a non-trained panel. The criteria of the sensory evaluation were perceived foot temperature, fabric dampness, and pain. No rating scale or common lexicon was needed for the sensory evaluation. Foot temperature and humidity were measured during the sport exercises by sensors integrated in the footwear, while coefficients of friction between sock fabric samples and a mechanical skin model were measured using a previously developed Textile Friction Analyzer. The influence of textile, physiological, and sensorial parameters on the sock comfort was statistically investigated. Significant correlations were found between physiological and sensorial parameters as well as between the fabric friction and perceived comfort. Perceived comfort depended on the fibre content of sock fabrics and on the perceived dampness and temperature of the feet. Surface roughness and water content of the textiles had no influence on sock comfort. The new approach of sensory evaluation using a non-trained panel is suitable for the assessment of sock comfort. Using test parameters simulating the contact conditions between foot and sock in sport activities, the Textile Friction Analyzer is an appropriate device to determine the fabric friction which is related to the sock comfort. The results of this research represent a first step towards a better understanding of the influence of different parameters on sock comfort.

Nanoparticle Silver Released into Water from Commercially Available Sock Fabrics

Nanoparticle Silver Released into Water from Commercially Available Sock Fabrics

Nanoparticle Silver Released into Water from Commercially Available Sock Fabrics

Manufacturers of clothing articles employ nanosilver (n-Ag) as an antimicrobial agent, but the environmental impacts of n-Ag release from commercial products are unknown. The quantity and form of the nanomaterials released from consumer products should be determined to assess the environmental risks of nanotechnology. This paper investigates silver released from commercial clothing (socks) into water, and its fate in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Six types of socks contained up to a maximum of 1360 microg-Ag/g-sock and leached as much as 650 microg of silver in 500 mL of distilled water. Microscopy conducted on sock material and wash water revealed the presence of silver particles from 10 to 500 nm in diameter. Physical separation and ion selective electrode (ISE) analyses suggest that both colloidal and ionic silver leach from the socks. Variable leaching rates among sock types suggests that the sock manufacturing process may control the release of silver. The adsorption of the leached silver to WWTP biomass was used to develop a model which predicts that a typical wastewater treatment facility could treat a high concentration of influent silver. However, the high silver concentration may limitthe disposal of the biosolids as agricultural fertilizer.

Relationship of Fiber Content and Fabric Properties to Comfort of Socks

The purpose of the study was to investigate the relationship of fiber content and fabric properties to the subjective evaluation of comfort of socks and to determine the subjective evaluations and laboratory measurements that best predict comfort. Socks made from all synthetic or predominantly cotton fibers were worn during exercise. Laboratory measurements were made on samples of sock fabrics which had been washed but not worn. Subjective evaluations obtained from the participants during the wear study indicated that the socks made from synthetic fibers were slightly more comfortable than the predominantly cotton socks. Prior to the wear study the majority of participants had indicated that they would select cotton socks for maximum comfort. The subjective evaluations of sock softness and foot dryness were found to be the significant determinants of comfort. Neither fiber content nor any of the laboratory measurements (weight, thickness, moisture absorption, air permeability, compressibility, and compressional resiliency) were found to be good predictors of comfort.