Socio-ecological Systems Framework Research Articles

Sustainable recreation and tourism: Making sense of diverse conceptualizations and management paradigms

Sustainability in the context of visitor management in protected areas is a notion that is widely employed and variously defined. Most definitions of sustainable recreation/tourism employ variations of the three pillars (ecology, economy, social equity) introduced in the 1987 Brundtland Report. In a survey of 217 recreation and tourism professionals and researchers, respondents provided working definition of sustainable recreation or sustainable tourism . Qualitative responses were systematically coded and analyzed to unearth common themes. Results suggest that notions of sustainability vary based on geography and institutional affiliation, reminding us that sustainability is a fluid construct that can be deployed to achieve agency objectives or in response to internal or external forces. Definitions of sustainable recreation and tourism are becoming more multi-faceted, nuanced, and layered – moving away from a vantage point that privileges environmental objectives to a socio-ecological systems framework that recognizes the interconnected web of socio-cultural, local-global, institutional, and relational, processes. Managerial capacity and resource governance are of increasing relevance for sustainable development. The following key questions are crucial for the protected area management in the context of recreation and nature-based tourism: - How can it be designed to enhance healthy ecosystems and meet conservation goals? - How can it contribute to healthy communities and social institutions? - How can it enhance cultural revitalization and protection of cultural elements? - How can it contribute to poverty alleviation, equal job opportunities and a fair distribution of benefits? - How can it be conducted in a reasonable, cost effective and efficient way for management agencies? - How can it foster partnership and collective capacities? - How can it promote divers visitor experiences, visitor awareness and learning?

Indigenous governance structures for maintaining an ecosystem service in an agro-pastoral community in the Indian Trans Himalaya

ABSTRACT The majority of the global terrestrial biodiversity occurs on indigenous lands, and biodiversity decline on these lands is relatively slower. Yet, robust understanding of indigenous governance systems for biodiversity and ecosystem services remains a key knowledge gap. We used the socio-ecological systems framework to study the governance of ecosystem services (ES) by an indigenous community in the Village of Kibber in the Trans-Himalayan Mountains of India. Focusing on plant-biomass removal from communal pastures, we identified the main factors shaping local governance using in-depth focal and deliberative group discussions with community members. Notwithstanding inequities of caste and gender, we found that Kibber had a well-functioning, complex, relatively democratic and inclusive system, with all households of the village involved in decision-making related to ES governance. Robust systems of information sharing, monitoring, conflict resolution, and self-organization played an important role. We found the role of institutional memory sustained by the oracle to be critical in maintaining governance structures. Our work underscores the potential resilience and importance of indigenous systems for the governance of ecosystem services.

How do governance arrangements matter in the circular economy? Lessons from five methanation projects based on the social-ecological system framework

As the circular economy (CE) is a viable solution to address environmental issues, academics and policy makers aim to have a better understanding of the drivers and barriers related to its development. Nonetheless, what is still missing in this discussion is what governance arrangements at the micro level would be conducive for the CE. In other words, how actors should interact to apply, form, and reform rules to organize activities inherent in the development of the CE. This study aims to investigate this question by mobilizing the Socio-Ecological Systems framework to examine five methanation projects carried out in the Brittany and Normandy regions of France. As these projects are characterized by different outcomes, a comparative analysis is conducted to identify a set of governance arrangement factors that are key to the success of the CE. First, in terms of actors, the results highlight the importance of (i) the participation of all relevant stakeholders in the governance process, especially local inhabitants, (ii) facilitative leadership, (iii) sufficient technological expertise. Second, there should be effective collaboration through frequent information sharing and self-organizing activities. Third, actors apply constitutional rules while elaborating collective choice rules that allow a collaborative and bottom-up governance.

Talking about trees: the territorial classification of native forests in the Argentinian Chaco

Deforestation represents an important contributor to climate change. For this reason, identifying conditions that enable the adoption of policies halting or reversing this process is crucial to avoid catastrophic climate change. The Argentinian Gran Chaco is a hotspot of deforestation, mainly due to the expansion of capital-intensive agriculture. In Argentina, the introduction of the national forest law (NFL) represents an important step to protect the remaining forests. However, in the Chaco ecoregion, the implementation of the NFL by the different provinces is extremely heterogeneous. Previous research has provided rich descriptions of the dynamics behind the implementation of the NFL. Yet this research, mainly based on qualitative approaches, does not allow for a systematic analysis of the conditions leading to more or less stringent implementations of the NFL. To address this gap, we first combine the socio-ecological systems framework with historical materialism to generate a plausible hypothesis for the heterogeneous implementation of the NFL across the 12 different provinces of the Argentinian Chaco. Specifically, we hypothesise that it is the differences in contextual factors (i.e. differences in forest cover), material/economic conditions (i.e. presence and extent of capital-intensive agriculture) and the strength of pro- and anti-deforestation coalitions, which lead to a heterogeneous territorial classification of native forests across the various provinces. Subsequently, we test the hypothesis by developing thorough case studies via qualitative comparative analysis. This approach allows us to study in a more systematic way the reasons for the observed institutional heterogeneity. The results show that the proportion of native forests characterised as of low conservation value reflects both the environmental context (i.e. the extent of native forests) as well as the material/economic conditions (i.e. the extent of capital-intensive agriculture) and the presence of strong pro-deforestation cultures, expressed via pro-deforestation coalitions.

Estuarize-WIO: A socio-ecological assessment of small-scale fisheries in estuaries of the Western Indian Ocean

Estuaries provide unique ecosystem goods and services and have been focal points for human settlement andresource use throughout recorded history. In the Western Indian Ocean (WIO) region, the effects of human population growth, rapid economic development and climate change on estuaries threaten their ecological functioning and the sustainability of estuary-dependent livelihoods. Governance systems are ill-equipped to deal with the mounting challenges. Long-term datasets that describe estuary-scale trends are scarce, and socio-ecological interactions that support sustainable use of resources are incompletely understood. To address these gaps, the Estuarize-WIO project (2016-2019) compiled datasets on biophysical, ecological, socio-economic and fisheries aspects of selected estuaries in Mozambique (Bons Sinais), Tanzania (Ruvu) and Kenya (Tana), analysed trends per estuary, and used a socio-ecological systems (SES) framework to integrate information from multiple sources at local and regional levels. The introductory paper of this Special Issue of the Western Indian Ocean Journal of Marine Science provides regional context and reviews the relevant literature available for WIO estuaries. In succeeding papers, estuarine circulation is inferred from hydrological measurements, seasonal and decadal trends in land cover and land use are investigated using remote sensing images, household surveys are used to investigate socio-economic circumstances and resource use, and long-term catch survey data and field samples are used to describe small-scale fisheries. In the synthesis paper, a SES framework is constructed to investigate linkages and feedback loops in individual estuaries. A regionally comparative analysis across the WIO region was conducted, and recommendations were made for future research and governance. The methodological approach developed for Estuarize-WIO is well-suited to research of data poor systems with limited accessibility and research infrastructure.

Salt Marsh Restoration for the Provision of Multiple Ecosystem Services

Restoration of salt marsh is urgent, as these ecosystems provide natural coastal protection from sea-level rise impacts, contribute towards climate change mitigation, and provide multiple ecosystem services including supporting livelihoods. This study identified potential restoration sites for intervention where agricultural and degraded land could be returned to salt marsh at a national scale in South African estuaries. Overall, successful restoration of salt marsh in some estuaries will require addressing additional pressures such as freshwater inflow reduction and deterioration of water quality. Here, we present, a socio-ecological systems framework for salt marsh restoration that links salt marsh state and the well-being of people to guide meaningful and implementable management and restoration interventions. The framework is applied to a case study at the Swartkops Estuary where the primary restoration intervention intends to route stormwater run-off to abandoned salt works to re-create aquatic habitat for waterbirds, enhance carbon storage, and provide nutrient filtration. As the framework is generalized, while still allowing for site-specific pressures to be captured, there is potential for it to be applied at the national scale, with the largest degraded salt marsh areas set as priorities for such an initiative. It is estimated that ~1970 ha of salt marsh can be restored in this way, and this represents a 14% increase in the habitat cover for the country. Innovative approaches to restoring and improving condition are necessary for conserving salt marshes and the benefits they provide to society.

Power, politics, and culture of marine conservation technology in fisheries.

The term conservation technology is applied widely and loosely to any technology connected to conservation. This overly broad understanding can lead to confusion around the actual mechanisms of conservation in a technological system, which can result in neglect and underdevelopment of the human dimensions of conservation technology. Ultimately, this hinders its effectiveness as technological fixes for conservation problems. Through a process of concept mapping based on key case studies and literature, I devised precise definitions of marine conservation technology and technological marine conservation system. Concerns about the use of marine conservation technologies included unintended consequences, halfway technologies that address the symptoms but not the causes of problems, and misguided techno‐optimism (i.e., technology is a panacea that can solve any problem). Technology and technological systems can have power, politics, and culture, and these characteristics can influence the contextual fit of a technology, requiring that technology be thoughtfully created or adapted to the circumstances in which it will be used. Power, politics, and culture inherent in technology can also influence the distribution of conservation risks and benefits and potentially widen gaps in wealth, privilege, opportunities, and justice. Addressing these concerns can potentially be achieved through the better integration of social sciences in marine conservation technology and technological marine conservation system design and development and the application of the social‐ecological‐technological systems framework. This framework melds key concepts from the socioecological systems framework and science and technology studies. It recognizes as and elevates technology to be a central actor that can shape societies and the natural world. Such a framework incorporates broader understanding, so that the values and concerns of society are more effectively addressed in the creation and implementation of marine conservation technologies and technological marine conservation systems.

An examination of adaptations of direct marketing channels and practices by Maryland fruit and vegetable farmers during the COVID-19 pandemic

This study explores the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and the Maryland stay-at-home order on fruit and vegetable farmers in Maryland. Focusing on farms’ direct-to-consumer marketing channels, we aim to characterize the diversity of farm responses and identify practices that facilitated adaptation. This research is grounded in the socio-ecological systems framework, which emphasizes the interconnection between social and ecological systems and characterizes the dual-driving forces that impact food producers and their livelihood. The study team conducted interviews with 20 Maryland farm owners/managers who grow and sell produce. The semistructured interviews includ­ed questions relating to production practices, sales and marketing, and resilience. The interviewer fol­lowed up with probes to understand the dimen­sions of response diversity and adaptive capacity. Interviews were transcribed verbatim, and responses were analyzed using the framework approach. In the context of a global pandemic, community supported agriculture (CSA), farmers markets, and pick-your-own channels provided a high degree of stability and financial security. No farmer reported relying solely on intermediated markets (e.g., restaurants, grocery stores, institu­tions). Distribution channels that incorporated an online marketplace offering prepacked pre-orders were a notable strength of highly adaptive Mary­land produce farmers. Farmers reported that expanding established CSAs was an important method for reallocating produce originally intended to be sold to reduced/terminated marketing chan­nels. Common challenges among farmers included increased administrative workload, concerns asso­ciated with raising food prices during a crisis, and environmental concerns about the use of additional packaging. We describe a range of adaptive behav­iors that aided farmers in withstanding shocks.

Socio-Ecological Systems Analysis and Health System Readiness in Responding to Dengue Epidemics in Ilala and Kinondoni Districts, Tanzania

IntroductionSince 2010, Tanzania has been experiencing frequent outbreaks of dengue. The objectives of this study were to carry out a socio-ecological systems (SES) analysis to identify risk factors and interventions and assess the readiness of the district in the prevention and control of dengue.MethodsThe study utilized a cross-sectional purposive selection of key stakeholders responsible for disease surveillance and response in human and animal sectors in Ilala and Kinondoni districts in Tanzania. A SES framework was used to identify drivers and construct perceived thematic causal explanations of the dengue outbreaks in the study districts. A mapping exercise was carried out to analyse the performance of the disease surveillance system at district and facility levels. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to assess the districts’ readiness in the response to dengue outbreak.ResultsThe two districts were characterized by both urban and peri-urban ecosystems, with a mixture of planned and unplanned settlements which support breeding and proliferation of Aedes mosquitoes. The results indicate inadequate levels of readiness in the management and control of dengue outbreaks, in terms of clinical competence, diagnostic capacities, surveillance system and control/prevention measures. Mosquito breeding sites, especially discarded automobile tyres, were reported to be scattered in the districts. Constraining factors in implementing disease surveillance included both intrapersonal and interpersonal factors, lack of case management guidelines, difficult language used in standard case definitions, inadequate laboratory capacity, lack of appropriate rapid response teams, inadequate knowledge on outbreak investigation and inadequate capacities in data management.ConclusionThe two districts had limited readiness in the management and control of dengue, in terms of clinical competence, diagnostic capacities, surveillance system and prevention and control measures. These challenges require the immediate attention by the authorities, as they compromise the effectiveness of the national strategy for community health support.

COVID-19 Impacts on Teaching and Learning: A Collaborative Autoethnography by Two Higher Education Lecturers

The phenomenon of the Covid-19 lockdown in New Zealand during 2020 enabled two Higher Education (HE) lecturers to reflect on grappling with new technologies, changes in lifestyle and livelihoods, and the impact that social isolation had on Bachelor of Sport and Recreation (BSR) students as they shifted to emergency “remote” teaching and learning. This paper presents personal narratives, authored collaboratively by lecturers Anna and Hana (pseudonyms), engaging with a socio-ecological systems framework. The systems framework presents a layered, multi-faceted approach to reveal the complexity of the impacts of Covid-19 on HE teaching and learning. In-depth analysis of the microsystems, mesosystems, and macrosystems making up their systems framework, serve to highlight specifically how Anna and Hana interpreted their own and their university students’ responses to the unprecedented measures imposed on their lifestyle (home), livelihood (employment), and HE experience (online learning). By applying an autoethnographic methodology, this paper acknowledges and celebrates the lecturers’ subjectivity, emotionality, and influence on the presented research. As educators, their critical self-reflections are authentic and timely, expressing key concerns and considerations, while searching for optimal solutions to deliver equal and equitable learning opportunities for all students. A unique characteristic of this phenomenon was the inability (due to COVID-19 restrictions) of students who learn through practical contexts, to enact kinesthetically in a meaningful manner, and the subsequent implications on their learning. This paper presents a snippet of the lecturers’ reflective practice, co-constructed from recollections, memories, and anecdotal evidence, against a backdrop of current Covid-19 research on the effects of the pandemic, on teaching and learning globally. Whilst this paper sheds light on the experiences of two HE lecturers during the COVID-19 lockdown, a collection and analysis of “student” voice, is recommended. This paper concludes that a collaborative autoethnographic approach during exceptional circumstances, such as natural disasters, pandemics, and other disruptive situations, provides an opportunity for professional self-observation and self-reflective practice that is mutually beneficial, and empowering. These insights provide shared critical knowledge to sustain achievement while averting negative impacts, for students and lecturers alike.

Coastal and Marine Socio-Ecological Systems: A Systematic Review of the Literature

The socio-ecological systems (SESs) framework provides cross-disciplinary insight into complex environmental problems. Numerous studies have applied the SES framework to coastal and marine environments over the last two decades. We review and analyze 98 of those studies to (i) describe how SES concepts were examined and measured, (ii) describe how the studies included feedbacks and thresholds, and (iii) identify and analyze elements unique to coastal and marine SES frameworks. We find that progress has been made in understanding key SES properties in coastal and marine ecosystems, which include resilience, adaptive capacity, vulnerability, and governance. A variety of methods has been developed and applied to analyze these features qualitatively and quantitatively. We also find that recent studies have incorporated land-based stressors in their analyses of coastal issues related to nutrient runoff, bacterial pollution, and management of anadromous species to represent explicit links in land-to-sea continuums. However, the literature has yet to identify methods and data that can be used to provide causal evidence of non-linearities and thresholds within SES. In addition, our findings suggest that greater alignment and consistency are needed in models with regard to metrics and spatial boundaries between ecological and social systems to take full advantage of the SES framework and improve coastal and marine management.

Application of the Socio-Ecological System Framework to Forest Fire Risk Management: A Systematic Literature Review

Although increasing concern about climate change has raised awareness of the fundamental role of forest ecosystems, forests are threatened by human-induced impacts worldwide. Among them, wildfire risk is clearly the result of the interaction between human activities, ecological domains, and climate. However, a clear understanding of these interactions is still needed both at the global and local levels. Numerous studies have proven the validity of the socioecological system (SES) approach in addressing this kind of interdisciplinary issue. Therefore, a systematic review of the existing literature on the application of SES frameworks to forest ecosystems is carried out, with a specific focus on wildfire risk management. The results demonstrate the existence of different methodological approaches that can be grouped into seven main categories, which range from qualitative analysis to quantitative spatially explicit investigations. The strengths and limitations of the approaches are discussed, with a specific reference to the geographical setting of the works. The research suggests the importance of local community involvement and local knowledge consideration in wildfire risk management. This review provides a starting point for future research on forest SES and a supporting tool for the development of a sustainable wildfire risk adaptation and mitigation strategy.

Rewilding the world’s large carnivores without neglecting the human dimension

Rewilding is a growing conservation concept that seeks to enhance biodiversity and improve ecosystem functioning. When rewilding includes the reintroduction of large carnivores to landscapes from which they have been extirpated, assessing the societal impacts and acceptability is as, if not more, important than assessing the ecological feasibility (in: Smith et al, Application to Natural England for the trial reintroduction of lynx to England, Lynx UK Trust, Kielder, 2015a, Application for the trial reintroduction of lynx to Scotland, Lynx UK Trust, Kielder, 2015b; Johnson and Greenwood 2020). We caution that not including the human dimension when modelling the feasibility of a particular conservation action will produce flawed results by masking potentially low public acceptance and conflicts with particular stakeholders. Furthermore, repeated failure to work within a socio-ecological system (SES) framework threatens to alienate key stakeholders, particularly when NGOs propose trial reintroductions prior to any rigorous consideration of the human dimension. When the interests of one party (e.g. NGOs or conservationists) are perceived to be asserted over the interests of others (e.g. small-livestock farmers), the stage is set for a conservation conflict. Conservation conflicts not only hamper worthwhile conservation initiatives but drive a wedge between key stakeholders that need to agree on a clear long-term conservation and management plan before the state will accede to such proposals.

Investigating SES variables causing changes in sense of place in the context of coastal wetland conservation - A case of Pulicat lagoon

Socio-Ecological System (SES) approach is being employed for more than 20 years to conserve coastal wetlands. It has been observed through literature study that the institutional mechanism used as SES approach for conserving coastal wetlands influences various dimensions of Sense of Place (SoP). This ‘influence’ on SoP many a time adversely affect the performances of projects. The paper investigates the impact of changes in SES variables on SoP components due to institutional mechanism adopted for conserving the Pulicat Lagoon, located in the state of Tamil Nadu, India. The SES framework is used for identifying and analysing the responsible SES variable influencing changes in the SoP. A qualitative approach is adopted, to gain insight into an understudied phenomenon by using a semi-structured interview for the selected participants through purposive sampling (n = 30). Grounded theory was used to arrive at categories from thematic analysis of transcripted data. The data interpreted resulted in contextualizing the core phenomenon for theory generation. The findings reveal that socio-political dimension has a major role in instigating conflicts between Pulicat lagoon management (CRZ authorities and TN Forest Department) and coastal communities over resource ownership, recognition of their land rights and lacking participation towards conservation. In essence, the qualitative study reveals that communities reflect a deep association with the lagoon, which contributes significantly to their sense of belonging. Thus, result advocate for a strong involvement and integration of SoP values for effective place-based conservation.

Adaptive Behaviors to Marine Ecosystem Shifts: Examining Fishermen’s Strategies in Response to Abundant Juvenile Sablefish (Anoplopoma fimbria) in Alaska

Over recent years there have been rapid changes occurring across marine ecosystems worldwide, with high latitude systems seeing ecosystem shifts emerging at unprecedented rates. The Gulf of Alaska and Bering Sea marine ecosystems have experienced substantial fluctuation in fish stocks, with some species experiencing considerable decreases while others thrive. Following the marine heatwave of 2014, sablefish (Anoplopoma fimbria) had a historically unparalleled juvenile recruitment class that is now dominating the stock composition. While this recruitment class bodes well for future fisheries, it is currently undermining the value of the fishery with limited incentives to retain the smaller and less valuable fish, compounding adverse effects on earnings in the fishery due to whale depredation that has been occurring for years. This study examines the well-being implications of fishermen’s adaptive strategies to these ecosystem conditions within the Alaska sablefish fishery using a socio-ecological system framework, operationalized as a qualitative network model (QNMs) and quantitative indicators. We examine the extent to which adaptation strategies, derived from a literature review and stakeholder interviews, are being utilized in the fishery with quantitative indicators. These strategies are then examined with QNMs that explore their impacts across the spectrum of well-being. By coupling quantitative indicators and QNMs, we were able to demonstrate how adaptive strategies can be examined to capture the multi-faceted well-being effects of fisheries participants’ adaptations to changing conditions. This study directly addresses several of the key guiding principles of the U.S. EBFM Road Map, including advancing our understanding of ecosystem processes, exploring trade-offs within an ecosystem, and maintaining resilient ecosystems, inclusive of community well-being. Thus this paper demonstrates how coupled socio-ecological models can elevate the inclusion of human adaptive behaviors, providing a framework for the development of policymaking that can mitigate adverse effects on both the participants and the resource by facilitating the mixture of adaptive strategies that maximizes desired well-being outcomes.

Determinants of User Satisfaction and the Implications on Collective Action in Demand-driven Water Governance in Rural Uganda

The devolution of water management from the state to user communities is usually based on the assumption that users are able and willing to take on the necessary responsibilities. Despite over a decade of implementing a demand-driven approach in rural water provision in Uganda, operation and maintenance of communal water infrastructure is still an uphill task. Using a mixed methods approach and a socio-ecological systems framework, this article shows the relationship between water user satisfaction and willingness to engage in collective action towards water provision. The article further presents factors influencing water users’ satisfaction under the demand-driven model of water governance. The results indicate a highly significant relationship between user satisfaction and willingness to contribute to operation and maintenance of water infrastructure. The explanatory variables influencing users’ satisfaction with water provision are categorised as institutional and biophysical factors. The analysis indicates that collective action is key for successful implementation of demand-driven model of water governance, but it cannot be assumed or taken for granted. Rather, it must be facilitated through fulfilling the needs and expectations of the beneficiaries as well as building robust self-governance local institutions.

Commons Research and Pastoralism in the Context of Variability

Abstract Research has shown that pastoralism and the management of the commons are connected (Bollig and Lesogorol 2016). In this article I discuss how the concept of variability, which emerged from discussions of dryland ecologies in the 1980s (Homewood 2008), can inform and enhance research on the commons and vice versa. Research on the commons can further elucidate the understanding of pastoralist practices. I conclude with reflections drawn from some empirical examples in the literature, the use of the socio-ecological systems (SES) framework, and discuss the benefits and potential problems when applied to heterogeneous and flexible pastoralist practices and to the pastoral management of the commons.

“They Try and Break Us But They Can’t”: The Cultural Ethos Youth of Color Engage and Rely on to Persevere and Navigate Racial Stressors in the U.S. Public Education System

This study aimed to identify factors that contributed to adaptive coping young people of color engage and rely on to navigate racial stressors in the public education system and to persist into college. The study included 20 undergraduate college students between 18 and 22 years who participated in retrospective interviews documenting critical incidents of racial stressors and coping. Participants self-identified as majority Black/African American (68%) and other nationalities including Honduran, Mexican, and Sudanese. A socioecological systems framework guided in-depth coding of interviews and identified college-going cultural ethos, relational ties, sense of agency, and emotional acuity themes. Findings suggest participants existed in an interdependent system of affirmation and validation that geared them toward college aspirations amid racial stressors encountered in the U.S. public education system. Discussion centers on the value of building the capacities of youths’ social ecologies to affirm their identities and validate their presence in the U.S. education system.

Protected areas management: A comparison of perceived outcomes associated with different co-management types

While it has been established that co-management outcomes vary based on the forms, processes and rules of co-management types, studies on co-management have focused on the processes and conditions necessary for co-management instead of critically assessing how and why different co-management arrangements result in different outcomes. Using the socio-ecological systems framework as an analytical tool, the study examines the extent to which actors' perceptions of co-management outcomes vary as a result of different co-management types and the factors accounting for such variations. The study employs focused group discussions with resource groups within the study communities and in-depth interviews with key stakeholders including local chiefs, NGOs and managers of the Mole National Park (MNP) in data collection. Results indicate that co-management arrangements involving key stakeholders but spearheaded by managers of the MNP results primarily in positive institutional outcomes whereas co-management arrangements that devolve natural resource management to local communities results in positive socio-economic, institutional and ecological outcomes. Key variables responsible for variations in perceived outcomes include the degree of power devolved to local people to manage resources, the governance structures including means of rules creation and enforcement and the extent to which co-management provides economic incentives to local people. The theoretical constructs on which the study is based provides a basis for inferences beyond this case study as it provides a general overview of variables that influence differences in co-management outcomes.

A Socio-Ecological System Analysis of Multilevel Water Governance in Nicaragua

Nicaragua enacted its Water Law in 2007, with the Dublin Principles for sustainable water management and integrated water resources management as its guiding framework. Implementation of the law remains a challenge, but significant efforts have been made to roll out this new water resources framework, to improve water management by enhancing a multilevel water governance system. To analyze multilevel water governance in Nicaragua and diagnose stakeholders’ roles and compliance with the law, we applied a socio-ecological system framework and several methods of analysis to process data collected from 52 in-depth semistructured interviews conducted with key stakeholders in the water sector. We found that the major variables affecting multilevel water governance were social interests, administrative capacity, and political, economic, and legal arrangements. The results suggest that there is centralization at the national level, a tendency toward noncollective choice rules, little investment in water resources, and a lack of knowledge concerning conflict resolution mechanisms. For multilevel water governance, a lack of funds is the main social, economic, and political constraint, affecting interactions and outcomes. Nevertheless, there is great potential to improve water resource management in Nicaragua by enacting the self-funding schemes established in the law. Moreover, government institutions, users, and various networks are willing to participate and take action to implement the law.