Society Of Automotive Engineers Research Articles

Non-driving-related tasks during level 3 automated driving phases–measuring what users will be likely to do.

After activation of a Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Level 3 automated driving function (SAE International, 2021), the function takes over the driving task and the human user may engage in other, non-driving-related tasks (NDRTs). Meanwhile, the user needs to remain receptive to requests by the function because s/he needs to reengage in the driving task, when the function approaches a system limit and requests the user to take over. Hence, the effects of NDRT engagement on driver state and takeover behavior have been investigated closely. However, concerning relevance to traffic safety, it is important to take a step back and investigate what NDRTs users are likely to engage in, and what methods are suitable to collect respective data. Two experiments were conducted to answer these questions. In Experiment 1, participants experienced Level 3 automated driving in a Wizard-of-Oz vehicle on German motorways. After the ride, participants were asked to name NDRTs that they would engage in, if the function was available in their own vehicle. In Experiment 2, participants were asked to bring their own NDRTs along and experienced Level 3 automated driving in the Wizard-of-Oz vehicle. Comparison of results shows preferences of similar NDRTs (e.g., smartphone usage and reading). Moreover, we found that different methods provide different insights into NDRT engagement (i.e., engagement rate, total duration rate of engagement, and naming rate). Integrating our results in current literature landscape highlights the strong dependence of resulting NDRTs from the investigation method. Results, strengths, and weaknesses of the employed methods are discussed.

Flying Free: A Research Overview of Deep Learning in Drone Navigation Autonomy

With the rise of Deep Learning approaches in computer vision applications, significant strides have been made towards vehicular autonomy. Research activity in autonomous drone navigation has increased rapidly in the past five years, and drones are moving fast towards the ultimate goal of near-complete autonomy. However, while much work in the area focuses on specific tasks in drone navigation, the contribution to the overall goal of autonomy is often not assessed, and a comprehensive overview is needed. In this work, a taxonomy of drone navigation autonomy is established by mapping the definitions of vehicular autonomy levels, as defined by the Society of Automotive Engineers, to specific drone tasks in order to create a clear definition of autonomy when applied to drones. A top–down examination of research work in the area is conducted, focusing on drone navigation tasks, in order to understand the extent of research activity in each area. Autonomy levels are cross-checked against the drone navigation tasks addressed in each work to provide a framework for understanding the trajectory of current research. This work serves as a guide to research in drone autonomy with a particular focus on Deep Learning-based solutions, indicating key works and areas of opportunity for development of this area in the future.

Autonomous vehicles and paratransit: Examining the protective framework of the Americans with Disabilities Act

An enormous amount of potential is bound within the autonomous vehicle domain; the potential for increased efficiency, safety, environmental benefits, and ultimately a more equitable transportation system. However, none of these benefits are inevitable. The design, planning, policy, and implementation frameworks that surround the introduction of these technologies will be crucial in determining the benefits realized and who realizes those benefits. One area where particular attention will be needed is paratransit. Providing transit service to users with disabilities is required under federal law since the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990. ADA has provided the protective framework for individuals with disabilities in all aspects of public life since that time. This paper will assess the current status quo in terms of both autonomous vehicle (AV) testing and regulation, current paratransit service, as well as assess ADA’s adaptability and applicability in an autonomous future. Due to ADA’s struggle to adapt to the latest advances in transportation technologies, such as ride hailing, this paper recommends updates to ADA as well as the passage of AV legislation with accessibility in mind. Additionally, lessons can be learned from ongoing AV pilots that could determine accessible design standards. These standards and legislation should integrate current frameworks surrounding autonomy, such as the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Levels of Automation and consider the public and private entities involved in the design, planning, and policy processes. AVs have great potential, but in order to harness that potential, effective policies and regulatory frameworks are required that address equity and accessibility issues for users with disabilities.

Older drivers’ experience with automated vehicle technology

Adults 65 years of age and older make up a fifth of the US population, prefer driving as their primary mode of transportation, and may derive health and safety benefits from using automated vehicles (AVs), assuming they accept and adopt these technologies. This study used a repeated measures crossover design, with random allocation of 104 older drivers who were exposed to an automated shuttle and a driving simulator in automated mode (Level 4, Society of Automotive Engineers). Participants completed pre- and post-exposure surveys, to report their perceptions via the Automated Vehicle User Perception Survey. Researchers utilized a two-way mixed ANOVA to analyze time effect, group effect, and time by group interaction effects. No group effects were evident, but older drivers’ perceptions of safety, trust and perceived usefulness of AV technology increased after being exposed to the AV technology. The group by time interaction effects indicated significant perceptions pertaining to intention to use, trust, perceived usefulness, control/driving efficacy, and safety. This study contributes to the body of knowledge regarding the determinants of older adult AV technology acceptance practices. Yet, it is recommended that future studies build on this work to identify the role of different regulatory systems, levels of technology, geographical contexts, and policies–that may influence older drivers’ perceptions of AV technology, before targeted policy and/or practice recommendations can be made. • Older drivers' perceived safety increased after exposure to the automated shuttle and simulator. • Older drivers' trust increased after exposure to the automated shuttle. • Older drivers' perceived usefulness increased after exposure to the simulator in automated mode. • Automated vehicles may provide health and safety benefits if older drivers accept it.

Design, Synthesis, and Manufacturing of a Competitive Lightweight, Space-Frame, Open Wheeled, Single Seated All-Terrain Vehicle

The process of designing a vehicle isn’t a simple task. The procedures of designing a safe, reliable, high performance, lightweight, space-frame, and single seated All - terrain vehicle (ATV) through applying the necessary scientific tools, engineering knowledge, and skills are highlighted in this work. An ATV was designed according to specific rules predefined by the Society of Automotive Engineering (SAE) board to ensure a high level of safety during the execution of different steps. The project was created with the idea that the best way to learn engineering is by doing engineering, where the vehicle described in this project is the result of the integration of several junior and senior engineering design projects. An innovative steering system design is introduced, including mathematical optimization of an inverted Ackerman steering system linkages. Experimental testing of suspension system components took place, and for improving ride comfort, anti-dive and anti-squat mechanisms were implemented. The vehicle was designed mainly for endurance purposes, so more attention was drawn to components’ durability and frame rigidity to sustain the severe conditions of stress arising from typical off-road driving obstacles (sand, mud, gravel, stone, dirt,...etc.), in addition to driver comfortability to secure sustainable driving as much as possible on rough terrains.

The Effects of Ultra-Low Viscosity Engine Oil on Mechanical Efficiency and Fuel Economy

The development of a sustainable powertrain requires improved thermal efficiency. Reducing frictional power losses through the use of ultra-low viscosity oil is one of the most effective and economical ways. To assess the potential for efficiency enhancement in a new generation of future engines using low-viscosity oils, a technical analysis was conducted based on numerical simulation and theoretical analysis. This study proposes a numerical method coupling the whole multi-dynamics model and lubrication model under mixed lubrication regimes. Then, load distribution was calculated numerically and verified experimentally. Finally, this paper compares the bearing load and frictional energy loss of the main bearings when using The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) 15W40 and SAE 0W20 oil. The results indicate that the application of ultralow-viscosity lubricant can reduce the hydraulic friction loss up to 24%, but the asperity friction loss would increase due to the reduction in load capacity. As a result, the design of a new generation of high efficiency internal combustion engines requires careful calculation and design to balance the trade-off relations between hydraulic friction and asperity friction.

Flow Distortion Into the Core Engine for an Installed Variable Pitch Fan in Reverse Thrust Mode

Abstract The flow distortion at core engine entry for a variable pitch fan (VPF) in reverse thrust mode is described from a realistic flow field obtained using an integrated airframe-engine model. The model includes the VPF, core entry splitter, complete bypass nozzle flow path wrapped in a nacelle, and installed to an airframe in landing configuration through a pylon. A moving ground plane to mimic the rolling runway is included. 3D Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) solutions are generated at two combinations of VPF stagger angle and rotational speed settings for the entire aircraft landing run from 140 to 20 knots. The internal reverse thrust flow field is characterized by bypass nozzle lip separation, pylon wake, and recirculation of flow turned back from the VPF. A portion of the reverse stream flow turns 180 deg with separation at the splitter leading edge to feed the core engine. The core engine feed flow exhibits circumferential and radial nonuniformities that depend on the reverse flow development at different landing speeds. The temporal dependence of the distorted flow features is also explored by an unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (URANS) analysis. Total pressure and swirl angle distortion descriptors, as defined by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) S-16 committee, and, total pressure loss into the core engine are described for the core feed flow at different operating conditions and landing speeds. It is observed that the radial intensity of total pressure distortion is critical to core engine operation, while the circumferential intensity is within acceptable limits. Therefore, the baseline sharp splitter edge is replaced by two larger rounded splitter edges of radii, ∼0.1x and ∼0.2x times the core duct height. This was found to reduce the radial intensity of total pressure distortion to acceptable levels. The description of the installed core feed flow distortion, as described in this study, is necessary to ascertain stable core engine operation, which powers the VPF in reverse thrust mode.

Drive Shaft Design and Analysis For Mini Baja

A wide variety of automobile design and racing events happening across the country to encourage the student community in the design of automobile vehicles. In this regard, the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) enables a student to gain real world experience in the fields of design, analysis and manufacturing of the all-terrain vehicle by conducting such events. This paper describes about the design and analysis of drive shaft for mini BAJA vehicle that has participated in one of the national level competitions conducted by SAE. Drive shaft is one of the major components used in BAJA. The drive shaft discussed here is used to transmit the required torque from the differential to the wheels. All the components of the drive shaft were designed analytically, modeled in Solid Works and analyzed using Ansys software to ensure its safety. The main objective is to fabricate more reliable and eco-friendly drive shaft by minimizing the cost and increasing the overall performance.

What motor vehicles and translation machines have in common - a first step towards a translation automation taxonomy

ABSTRACT In professional translation and in society in general, translation is increasingly automated. However, in Translation Studies, we lack an updated taxonomy of translation automation (TA) to understand the evolving and dynamic relationship between humans and digital technologies. Therefore, taking a first step towards a new taxonomy of TA, this paper adapts the Society of Automotive Engineers' taxonomy of six levels of driving automation, ranging from no automation to fully automated driverless cars, to the field of translation. The six levels of the TA taxonomy basically describe whether the translator and/or the system translates by means of source-text analysis and target-text production and checks for and corrects errors and inadequacies; whether the translator or the system responds to system failures; and whether the performance of the system is limited to a certain domain. Adapting the taxonomy was a complex endeavor, and constructive criticism from stakeholders interested in TA would be welcome.

Optimal Time Intervals in Two-Stage Takeover Warning Systems With Insight Into the Drivers' Neuroticism Personality.

Conditional automated driving [level 3, Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)] requires drivers to take over the vehicle when an automated system’s failure occurs or is about to leave its operational design domain. Two-stage warning systems, which warn drivers in two steps, can be a promising method to guide drivers in preparing for the takeover. However, the proper time intervals of two-stage warning systems that allow drivers with different personalities to prepare for the takeover remain unclear. This study explored the optimal time intervals of two-stage warning systems with insights into the drivers’ neuroticism personality. A total of 32 drivers were distributed into two groups according to their self-ratings in neuroticism (high vs. low). Each driver experienced takeover under the two-stage warning systems with four time intervals (i.e., 3, 5, 7, and 9 s). The takeover performance (i.e., hands-on-steering-wheel time, takeover time, and maximum resulting acceleration) and subjective opinions (i.e., appropriateness and usefulness) for time intervals and situation awareness (SA) were recorded. The results showed that drivers in the 5-s time interval had the best takeover preparation (fast hands-on steering wheel responses and sufficient SA). Furthermore, both the 5- and 7-s time intervals resulted in more rapid takeover reactions and were rated more appropriate and useful than the 3- and 9-s time intervals. In terms of personality, drivers with high neuroticism tended to take over immediately after receiving takeover messages, at the cost of SA deficiency. In contrast, drivers with low neuroticism responded safely by judging whether they gained enough SA. We concluded that the 5-s time interval was optimal for drivers in two-stage takeover warning systems. When considering personality, drivers with low neuroticism had no strict requirements for time intervals. However, the extended time intervals were favorable for drivers with high neuroticism in developing SA. The present findings have reference implications for designers and engineers to set the time intervals of two-stage warning systems according to the neuroticism personality of drivers.

Simulink Implementation of the Data Distribution Service for Vehicular Controllers on Top of GBE and AFDX

AbstractVehicular networks have seen major changes in the past few years in order to offer reliable and real-time capable high-speed data transmission between electrical and mechatronic components to map current and future innovative functions into distributed systems within automotive applications. In the same context, the real-time middleware data distribution service (DDS) is an appropriate alternative for the standard vehicular middleware considering that it handles quality of service (QoS) parameters including real-time ones. In this paper, we are proposing a new approach for DDS implementation and integration into the vehicular system by creating a model-based design blocks. To validate this implementation, we have used the case of the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) vehicle benchmark as a simulation and test model. Therefore, we designed a Simulink vehicle as specified by SAE benchmark. Then, we have introduced a new methodology to link each module to a Simulink DDS blockset. The goal of this approach is to facilitate the use of DDS with vehicular controllers and to reduce the deployment and configuration complexities associated with DDS. It will also enable distributed real-time embedded systems developers to concentrate more on the business logic of the application instead of the low-level implementation details. The final developed architecture has been tested using three different types of real-time networks: FlexRay, Gigabit Ethernet and AFDX, to demonstrate that real-time application’s QoS are always met using this model.

Study of the Effect of Physicochemical Degradation and Contamination of Motor Oils on Their Lubricity

Internal combustion engine lubrication is essential for unwanted energy and material losses. As part of the experimental work, the lubricity of both new and worn motor oils of Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) 15W-40 and SAE 10W-40 with different American Petroleum Institute (API) performance classifications, which were taken from various motor trains during maintenance or oil change, was assessed. A total of sixteen lubricant samples were evaluated. Lubricity, i.e., the load capacity of the lubricating film, was evaluated on the basis of the Reichert test. Viscosity, as one of the most important parameters of lubricants, was evaluated by the Stabinger Viscometer. Chemical degradation of motor oils (oxidation, nitration, sulfation), contamination of oils with fuel, soot, water, and loss of antioxidant zinc dialkyldithiophosphate (ZDDP) were monitored by Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Of the fresh motor oils, OMV 10W-40 API SL/CF motor oil had the best lubricity. URANIA LD 15W-40 API CI-4 and M7ADS V 15W-40 API CI-4 CH-4/SL oils showed similar lubricity. M7ADS III 15W-40 API CF-4/SG motor oil showed the highest wear of wear surface, i.e., the lowest lubricity, of the tested new motor oils. Correlation analysis of the experimental data confirmed that the fuel content penetrated the motor oils significantly negatively correlates with the viscosity (R = −0.87). The low water contamination in motor oil does not cause a significant negative effect on lubricity. A significant correlation between the oxidation, nitration, and sulfation products of chemical degradation of the tested oils was confirmed (R ≥ 0.90). These degradation products improve lubricity due to their polarity, i.e., they have caused better lubricity of worn oils compared to new motor oils. Even the depletion of the antioxidant ZDDP did not affect the reduction in lubricity and anti-abrasion properties of chemically degraded motor oils. The experimental results of testing of worn motor oils taken from motor trains showed that current motor oils have excellent lubricity, which they maintain throughout their life.

Talking about automated vehicles: What do levels of automation do?

Automated vehicles have become a popular topic of conversation. Initially, these conversations were limited to technology developers, innovators and engineers, as they worked to progressed the various technologies and systems that are required to create automated vehicles. Then, over time, these conversations extended to other communities; lawyers, insurers, planners, policymakers, social scientists, and various publics all began hearing, and talking about automated vehicles – also known as ‘driverless’, ‘self-driving’, and ‘autonomous’ vehicles. Levels of automation emerged as a way to depict gradations or categories of autonomy, with tasks divided between those for the machine and those for humans. In this paper, we critically reflect upon the dominance of levels of automation – up to seven sequential ‘steps’ - proposed by a number of industry organisations. Focusing on the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Standard J3016, we signal the intended and unintended performative effects of these levels. We argue that current discourses on automated vehicles have been underpinned by a techno-centric, expert-dominated logic, and point to the benefits of more dispersed, geographically contingent, and socio-technical perspectives in re-framing the dominant discourse and allowing for more nuanced spatial and temporal understandings on future systems of (automated) mobility.

Особенности технических требований к эксплуатационным свойствам

Analytical information on the state of the art in the development and implementation of new foreign requirements in the specifications for motor oils for serial and future automobile engines, taking into account global trends in environmental protection, is presented. Global technical requirements for the level of properties of engine oils are traditionally improved, both in the direction of meeting the design features of new engines and their operating conditions. For example, the market for motor oils for automotive diesel engines is gradually moving to products with lower kinematic viscosity with the advancement of the advantages of new technologies, which makes them more accessible for use by truck fleets. Over the past decades, engine oils with viscosity grades 15W-40 according to SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers - SAE) in the heavy truck market and 10W-30 according to SAE in the passenger car market have been the main ones. More recently, there has been a transition to truck operation on SAE 10W-30 viscosity grades, and a trend has gradually emerged towards the use of the latest category of engine oils for diesel engines FA-4 API (American Petroleum Institute - API) with a lower viscosity. Currently, the demand is shifting towards low-viscosity oils that meet the three needs of diesel engines for trucks [1].

Analysis of 0W-20 Totachi Brand Oil to Determine the Rate of Oil Deterioration

Engine oil or lubricating oil has a major effect on the engine life and the proper operation of any engine. Changing the engine oil before it is due increases a customer’s cost. The lubricating oil in every engine performs many functions such as reducing friction, preventing corrosion, protecting the engine against wear, removing all impurities, lubricating the moving parts, and cooling the engine parts. There are several causes for the deterioration of lubricating oil, including the properties of the oil, oil quality, and high engine temperatures. Consequently, the deteriorated oil must be replaced at a specified mileage or at specific time intervals to get the best engine performance. It is very important to know when to change the oil, because changing the oil too late can affect the engine parts and vehicle performance. However, replacing the oil too early influences the economy and environment and is an inefficient use of depleting resources. This study describes the kinematic viscosity, flash point, and fire point of multigrade Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) 0W-20 Totachi (Totachi Industrial Co. Ltd., Japan) international brand oil, which has a 10,000 km guarantee and is approved by and used in 10 different vehicle brands, to determine the rate of deterioration of the parameters. These parameters are the most important physical behaviors of lubricating engine oils. Having information about these parameters is very important for maintaining an engine’s lifespan. The results of this study showed that after 10,000 km, the Totachi oil parameters such as the kinematic viscosity at cold start, at 40°C and at 100°C, the flash point, and the fire point decreased by 22.03%, 25.98%, 26.75%, 16.94% and 17.34%, respectively, from the base values, and that the oil is suitable to use for 10,000 km.

Analyzing suspension upright of a Formula Society of Automotive Engineers style vehicle.

This project was aimed at modelling the stress and deformation profile of a 6061-T6 aluminium suspension upright of a formula society of automotive engineers style vehicle with a double wishbone suspension under the loading conditions of a 1.5G corner. With these results, it would need to be determined whether the design is fit for use. Using remote displacement boundary conditions for the upper and lower wishbone connections and the control arm connection with a remote force at the centre of the wheel patch acting on the bearing surfaces the maximum stress, overall stress profile and maximum deformation of the upright was calculated. These results after, undertaking a verification and validation study, were a maximum equivalent von-Mises stress of 87.358MPa and a maximum bearing surface deflection of 0.21 mm. The maximum von-Mises stress calculated was less than the fatigue limit of 90MPa signalling infinite life and also less than the yield stress of 240MPa signalling a safe design. Verification and validation techniques were used to ensure the final result was accurate and reflected the real – life system. Structural error was used to verify the results where it was found that maximum structural error in the upright was 0.052mJ and at the location of maximum stress was between 0.0058-1.0782e-8 mJ. Validation of the model was achieved by comparing the reaction forces calculated in ANSYS to theoretical values and was found that the magnitudes were within 2.5% of the theoretical values, thus the model was considered valid.

Suspension system design for a vehicle under BAJA SAE parameters

This research focuses his study on the design of a suspension system for a BAJA SAE vehicle under the PARAMETERS SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers). This society organizes seventeen (17) student competitions in eight (8) design series between university students called as Collegiate Design Competitions and Collegiate Design Contests, which is included representative themes that apply to vehicles Formula SAE, Formula Hybrid, SAE Aero Design, BAJA SAE, and SAE Clean Snowmobile Challenge. This research article evaluates the types of suspension that are implemented in mini-baja vehicles, and which, in turn, complies with the regulations established by the SAE competition of the year 2020. The methodology used from the mechanical engineering and control design components, use mathematical equations that govern dynamic movement to evaluate the behavior of the suspension system that through a CAD system, achieves modeling in a real environment, evaluating factors such as material, part dimensions or system selection, which can affect its proper functioning. This research is intended to support future applications, where there are suspension systems that allow to absorb the irregularities of the terrain with loads, where it is transmitted in less proportion according to the structure of the vehicle improving the experience of handling and maneuverability required for this type of student competitions, meeting the parameters established by SAE.

Design and manufacturing of a fuel tank for formula SAE vehicle

Abstract Formula Society of Automotive Engineers (FSAE) is an inter-collegiate design competition. The competition aims at giving students a chance to design and fabricate formula style race car according to the rules provided by the competition. This paper describes the design and fabrication of a leak proof fuel tank with flexible filler neck for FSAE vehicle, and its secure mounting on chassis. Key objective is to design a light weight fuel tank with reduced sloshing such that it holds optimal amount of fuel to complete the Endurance. The paper focuses on the development of economical fuel tank. Moreover, a draining system is to be provided in the fuel tank to draw off the fuel when needed. Throughout these processes, the design is based upon Formula Bharat 2020 rule book. The designing is carried out in solidworks and has been manufactured by performing sheet metal operations and TIG welding on aluminum (alloy 3003) sheets.

DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF TORSION BAR(ARB) FOR FSAE USING MATLAB

Formula SAE is a student design competition organized by SAE International (previously known as the Society of Automotive Engineers, SAE). The concept behind Formula SAE is that a fictional manufacturing company has contracted a student design team to develop a small Formulastyle race car. The prototype race car is to be evaluated for its potential as a production item. Each student team designs, builds and tests a prototype based on a series of rules, whose purpose is both ensuring on-track safety and promoting clever problem solving. An anti-roll bar is a part of automobile suspensions that helps reduce the body roll of a vehicle during fast cornering or over road irregularities. It connects opposite wheels together through short lever arms linked by a torsion spring. A sway bar increases the suspension's roll stiffness—its resistance to roll in turns, independent of its spring rate in the vertical direction. In this research paper, calculation for the anti-roll bar mechanism will be simpler, and more accurate than hand calculations. Calculation was done using MATLAB and further analysis using FEA in ANSYS.

A Scientometric Review of Powered Micromobility

Micromobility is an emerging field of transportation, referring to trips undertaken by a range of microvehicles. Microvehicles encompass both traditional and emerging types of light vehicles from conventional bicycles and powered-two wheelers, through to e-bikes and e-scooters, e-skateboards and “hoverboards”. The recent uptake in powered microvehicles emphasizes the need to understand the knowledge domain of micromobility research. This paper summarises the research status by identifying main contributors to and evolutionary trends in the field. The study applied scientometric analysis techniques to review 474 articles published between 1991 and 2020. The search on Thomson Reuter’s Web of Science database was guided by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) common vocabulary for powered micromobility. Results show a proliferation of research in the field of powered micromobility since 2012, which demonstrates that the growth in research is occurring alongside the increased availability of microvehicles and trips being made using microvehicles. A broad range of research topics including user behaviour, vehicle technology, planning, policy, health and safety were identified with the latter two found to be the most studied areas. Findings suggest many potential benefits of using micromobility and that the field will continue to grow, spurred by the popularity of shared e-scooter schemes. Greater collaboration in the field is desirable to broaden the dissemination of knowledge.