Societal Traditions Research Articles

Back to the basics: mortality and fertility interactions during the demographic transition

Mortality change has traditionally been considered a necessary prerequisite to any long-term reduction in fertility. In Frank Notestein's original statement of the demographic transition theory, societies went from high to low levels of fertility and mortality by means of a path in which mortality declined first and was followed at a shorter or longer lag by fertility. Subsequently Abdel Omran outlined a number of scenarios of demographic transition, all of which reflected simultaneous or prior declines of mortality as a major factor stimulating fertility reduction. While Omran's view of the epidemiological transition goes on to emphasize many other aspects of mortality decline, his view of it as an agent for fertility decline is similar to Notestein's.This understanding of the mortality–fertility synergy is based on two very general conceptions of historical reality which both Omran and Notestein share with many people working in the field of historical demography. For one, there has never been a society known to historians in which fertility was high and mortality low, or mortality high and fertility low, except in moments of epidemic or economic or political stress, for relatively brief periods of time, or among very specific historic sub-populations. Normally mortality and fertility have ended up adjusting to each other more or less efficiently so as to ensure moderate rates of population growth. Moreover, high levels of fertility and mortality invariably were replaced by moderate ones during the demographic transition. Secondly, one of the reasons that the demographic transition holds such an allure for most historians is that it was a period of history in which societal traditions appear to have succumbed to the weight of rational choices made by families in order to ensure their best welfare in the face of changing circumstances. The initial instigator of the change, one would reasonably suspect, had to have been a decline in mortality with increasing numbers of children surviving beyond infancy. Faced with this reality, families made the decision to give individual choice priority over social norms and ended up curtailing their fertility. The entire context of social, economic and cultural modernization contributed to people's willingness to adopt new strategies when faced with new realities, but intuitively the point of departure would seem to have been incipient mortality transformation.

Sociology and the functions of technological autonomy

This paper provides an overview of the sociology of technology. It reviews different arguments about the sociology of technology and examines the path to social change. After reviewing those classical and contemporary theories which define the impact of technological processes, this paper explores the effects of society on technology and suggests that technological change derives from different societal traditions and as such accumulates and reflects social processes and cultures. It is argued that these views could build the basis for the analysis of social conflicts in industrialized countries.

Report on the Conference “Women in Evolution: A Gathering of Scientific Perspectives”

In 1970, the Federal Government passed Title VII, an amendment to the Civil Rights Act, making it illegal for educational institutions to discriminate by gender in their employment practices. Shortly thereafter, a series of bills (e.g., Title IX of the Education Amendment of 1972, which protects participants in federally funded educational activities from gender discrimination) were passed that were designed to promote women in academia (Chamberlain, 1991). These laws, as well as the changing attitudes underlying their passage, have facilitated great advancements by women in all disciplines of science. Although overt forms of discrimination can be legislated against, attitudes cannot (nor should they be). In a general sense, the traditional norms of our society result in men occupying more advantaged positions than women because society does not encourage or expect women to become powerful. Both men and women have been raised under these traditions, and both perpetuate and suffer from them. Accordingly, despite the passage of laws and much progress in changing societal traditions, women still tend to be underrepresented in academia (especially at more senior levels), including the field of evolutionary biology. For example, 26.1% of the Ph.D.s awarded in science and engineering in the USA in 1986 were to women (National Research Council, 1991), but as of 1991, the percentage of women full professors in science and engineering was only 9% (Fox, 1996). In 1993, the percentage of science and engineering doctorates that were unemployed was nearly identical for men and women (=2%); however, the percentage employed part time was more than three times greater for women (=12%) than for men (=4%) (Anonymous, 1996).

A Semiotic Reading of Proverbs Used by the Chewa in Malawi

Abstract This paper takes an emic approach to the study of proverbs. The focus is on the use of proverbs among the Chewa People and what these proverbs mean to them. A proverb, apart from being a linguistic sign with a literal interpretation, has other communication functions. Among other things, the Chewa use proverbs to define social parameters between the speaker and the hearer. They are also used to justify actions that would ordinarily be socially objectionable. In this sense proverbs have a self-fulfilling power and the Chewa utilize this power to assert their authority on societal traditions. Generally, the proverbs portray the society from men's perspective and as such very few proverbs portray women in favourable terms.

Culture and creativity.

The relationship between cultural and creative expression is complex. Cultural factors clearly have a profound influence on appropriate outlets for creative expression, on the nature of the subject matter and form of expression, on the functions that various forms of expression serve, and on the types of individuals selected for, or engaged in, creative activity. There are many different ways by which societies shape all aspects of creative expression, ranging from the availability of resources to the provision of rewards or punishments. It also becomes apparent that the association of creativity with originality is largely a Western outlook and that artistic achievements in other cultures do not necessarily have this requirement. Despite the powerful impact of culture on the creative expression of individuals, this relationship is often reciprocal. For whatever reasons, there tend to be individuals in all societies who challenge the cultural norm and societal tradition, despite the consequences, and who thereby help to shape the nature and form of art.

Civil Society and the State: Rise and Fall of the State as the Bearer of a Moral Project?

Democratic transitions depend on prior societal traditions and the emergence of a new political culture, but the crucial test for the consolidation and the institutionalization of democracy is the (relative) success of the new democratic state in the task of handling the basic problems of the country. This is a challenge for both the state and civil society, and the way this challenge is met has important repercussions on the relations between them. This test was particularly difficult for Spain due to the fact that it took place at a time of profound transformations (economic, social and cultural) in those Western European countries Spain was so eager to be part of.

The Ideal of Liberty: A Comment on Michael H. v. Gerald D.

What is the meaning and content of the protected by the due process clause of the fourteenth amendment? In Michael H. v. Gerald D.,' Justices Brennan and Scalia spelled out what at first blush appear to be sharply contrasting understandings of the meaning of liberty and of the substantive limits liberty imposes on state action.2 Justice Scalia argued that the protected by a substantive interpretation of due process is only the liberty to engage in activities historically protected against state intervention by firmly entrenched societal traditions. I will sometimes call this the interpretation of liberty. Justice Brennan, by contrast, argued for a much broader, and nominally more liberal, interpretation. The liberty protected by the fourteenth amendment, Brennan contended, means the liberty to enjoy those broad areas of life-such as parenthood, privacy, and sexuality-which have been identified as essential to liberty by the relevant judicial precedent of the Warren and Burger Court era. I will sometimes call this the interpretation. In this essay I will briefly argue that, appearances notwithstanding, Justice Brennan's precedential interpretation of liberty, no less than Justice Scalia's traditionalist one, is at its root deeply conservative. I will then argue that the best explanation for the conservatism of even this nominally liberal interpretation of liberty by an unquestionably jurist is that it stems from the general need of all members of the Court-liberal as well as conservative-to interpret the Constitution in a way that vindicates the jurisprudential virtues of good judicial decision-making. Those virtues, I will suggest, are themselves conservative, and perhaps necessarily so. It is therefore not surprising that constitutional interpretations rendered by even the Justices-such as Justice Brennan's interpretation of in Michael H. -have conservative overtones and consequences. Second, I will suggest that the Justices' collective need to constrain interpretation by the ethical demands of the adjudicative

13 - Cabbages and Condoms: Packaging and Channels of Distribution

Contraception is only rarely a therapy for disease. Usually, contraceptives help adults implement informed choices. Therefore, wider channels of distribution and promotion are possible and necessary than in the case of curative therapies. The more channels of distribution that are available for the same method of contraception, the higher the prevalence of use. Establishing new channels of distribution can be as important as developing new methods of contraception. Family planning is an important element in public health, and active promotion enhances the health of individuals and physicians. Other health professionals need to understand the role of non-medical skills and channels of contraceptive distribution.Preventive services, such as family planning, require wider channels of distribution and promotion than curative therapies. The more channels of distribution that are available for a contraceptive method, the higher the prevalence of use. The feedback that retail and social marketing can provide allow systems to be put into place that respond to consumer needs without offending societal traditions. Major innovations in condom promotion has revolved around packaging. It is useful to develop channels of distribution that supply contraceptives both to the user and the partner. To make an old method available through a new channel can be as useful as inventing a new contraceptive method. Often, the community-based distribution of contraceptives is the 1st element in the provision of primary health care. Continuous attention should be given to maximizing channels of contraceptive distribution and seeking numerous alternate ways of approaching the same fundamental goal. At all times, however, the user should be informed of the risks and benefits of a given method.

Some evolutionary aspects of human gender.

Biological sex is differentiated from societally assigned human gender. The variety of reproductive behavior patterns in contemporary animal species is noted, as are the problems posed by technologically-based changes in human work patterns and reproduction. Concepts from evolutionary biology cannot justify either retaining human societal gender traditions or changing them.

The Impact of Christianity on Traditional Naming Ceremony in the New Juaben Traditional Area

This study sought to explore the influence of Christianity on the African Akan naming ceremony with focus on the people of New Juaben Traditional Area. The developmental stages of human life experience have been earmarked by rites of passage that represent crucial facets in the cultural outlook and make-up of every society. These rites of passage include birth and childhood rites (naming ceremony), puberty, marriage and death rites. The Akan like every other society practises the naming ceremony in a way that reflects their cultural values, beliefs and traditions. Unfortunately, this culturally engineered practices have posed an ethico-religious dilemma regarding the ideal naming ceremony approach for an African Akan Christian. The aim of the study was realized through sampling 20 participants who were subjected to in-depth interview sessions. The study found out that Christianity has impacted Akan traditional naming ceremony in ways such as timing of naming ritual, traditional familial roles, naming rituals and emblems and the type of name given to the child. Conclusively, traditional religious adherents must constantly uphold its cultural heritage in the face of modernism which may sometimes demand a change in customs and societal traditions. Giving relevance to traditional naming ceremonies is the first step. The study recommends the need to document cultural practice for future generations as lived experiences may be tainted by factors that tend to demonize the Akan cultural practice of naming ceremonies.