Socialist Republics Research Articles

LOSSES OF THE WEST RUSSIAN VILLAGE DUE TO THE AXIS AGGRESSION: SCALE AND CONSEQUENCES

The article analyses the impact of human and material losses of the village of the West of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (the RSFSR) on the peculiarities of reconstruction processes in the first post-war years in terms of the diverse sources, many of which have recently been introduced into the scientific turnover. The deficit of manpower, equipment, and capital investments in the region’s agriculture, including one due to wartime losses, significantly slowed down the agricultural production industrialisation completion, predetermined inability to solve key problems of life and labour of the population, became one of the important causes of low incomes of many collective and state farms, the reduction of arable land since the early 1950s, and the long dominance of extra-economic coercion and its supporting structures in the countryside. The consequences of the war devastation combined with the unpopular agrarian policy of the first post-war years brought to life the improvement of adaptive behaviour by the village, which the authorities spent a lot of energy and resources to combat. The losses of the war years and harsh agrarian policy were also the key reasons for the undermining of the preserved elements of traditional culture of the village of the West of the RSFSR.

Daisy Payling. Socialist Republic: Remaking the British Left in 1980s Sheffield Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2023. Pp. 248. $130.00 (cloth).

Daisy Payling. Socialist Republic: Remaking the British Left in 1980s Sheffield Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2023. Pp. 248. $130.00 (cloth).

Geopolitical Security Concerns: A Catalyst for Russia’s Reengagement of Africa in Relations

Russia, also in the garb of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, had a record of a long-standing relations with Africa, the relationship that incidentally took a cold turn at the instance of the disintegration of the Soviet Union in the 1990s, as Russia prioritized stabilizing its domestic issues as the successor of the Soviet’s legacy. The emergence of the 21st century came with the post-Cold War security threat to Russian geopolitical space especially from its cold war rivals and hostile bordering states thus, prompting the conscientious efforts by Russia to review its foreign policy towards African alignment. The new Russia-Africa relations have generated a lot of interest by researchers, who have addressed the issue from a wide range of views, some of which included political, ideology, technical and economic. Cognizant of the geopolitical security concerns, which is observed as the primary basis for its new African relations, this research aims to examine Russian reengagement of Africa in relations adopting geostrategic theory. Data are gathered from secondary sources. The research is qualitative and framed within the scope of Russia-Africa security relations from 2014, following its annexation of Crimea, which marked a new phase of hostility between Russia and some North Atlantic Treaty Organisation allied countries. To achieve its strategic goal in Africa, Russia needs to pursue a comprehensive cooperation in other areas of direct investment that could offer African countries reciprocal paybacks that meet their national interests farther than concentrating on military aspect to achieving a personal goal.

Georgia’s potentials for sustainable intensification, increasing food security and rural incomes.

Abstract Increasing global demand for agricultural commodities spurs conversions of natural ecosystems. Sustainable intensification in areas of high yield gaps has been proposed a pathway to achieve food security, support rural livelihoods, while also reducing the impact of commodity production by narrowing yield gaps on existing agricultural lands, while improving resource efficiency. Following the dissolution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), Georgia experienced one of the highest losses of agricultural productivity among all former USSR countries and is now highly dependent on food imports. Closing yield gaps in Georgia through sustainable intensification has the potential to increase food self-sufficiency, support rural livelihoods, and strengthen food security and sovereignty. We estimated its potential for sustainable intensification in current agricultural areas to achieve self-sufficiency for wheat, maize, and barley. We found that crop yields can be doubled to tripled under high-input production systems, using high-yielding varieties, optimized inputs, fertilizers, and pest control. Yet, self-sufficiency in wheat can only be reached if at least 80% of the potentially attainable yields are achieved and if land is strategically allocated between crops. To achieve such increases, farmers need access to and training for using different crop varieties, fertilizers, and pest and disease control practices and products. Intensification increases the risks to ecosystem services’ health and livelihoods, particularly raising equity concerns. Yet, intensifying very low input systems is often found to be more sustainable, with high yield increases compared to limited impacts on the environment. The high employment rate in the agricultural sector in Georgia particularly provides opportunities to reduce poverty and increase livelihoods through increasing incomes and food security.

Проблемы правового регулирования деятельности профсоюзных организаций

In accordance with the current labour legislation the problems of the position of trade union organisations are analysed. The norms of labour legislation of the RussianSoviet Federative Socialist Republic and the Russian Federation are studied. Attention is paid to the analysis of court decisions on the cases connected with public relations with the participation of trade union organisations.

From the Soviet Union to Russia: fifty years of reforms in initial teacher education

ABSTRACT Teacher education in Russia has become the subject of considerable reform over the past 50 years. It is today a complex system of continuous training which gives students a chance to enter the profession in a number of different ways, as well as maintain their professional skill set throughout the course of their careers. This paper offers a comprehensive overview of the history and the state of art initial teacher education in Russia during the last 50 years. It aims to draw on scholarly expertise in Russia and will locate the policies and practices that are discussed within the context of teacher education reform. The main themes of the paper are the history and current practice of Russian initial teacher education. The paper will consider the relationship between policy and practice and examine the respective influences of the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), and processes of wider reform in the Russian Federation since the 1990s.

The formation and geography of the location of agricultural communes on the territory of the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1924 – 1930)

The study discusses the formation and location of agricultural communes on the territory of the existing of The Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (MASSR) during 1924-1930th. In the beginning of the article, the author submits to the analysis the problem of the historiography, concluding that both the number of work collections and their geographical location vary according to the addressed source. The study of the archive documents allowed the creation of an overview on the name of the communes and the place of their establishment. The cartographic material that resulted from the systematization of data allows the extension of the research directions of the rural area on the left bank of the Dniester during the interwar period.

Legal evaluation of the deportation of Azerbaijanis from the Armenian SSR in 1988-1991 from the perspective of the Declaration on Independence of Armenia and the constitution of Armenia: interpretation of the constitutional acts of the Republic of Armenia

The subject of the article is the return of Azerbaijanis to their native territories, a topic that has gained enough attention recently in the legal community and in both Azerbaijani and Armenian society, particularly after the 2020 clashes between the two states. The article's study direction, in contrast to many other scientific and journalistic works already in existence, addresses this return to the national level rather than the international ground. As a result, the constitutional acts of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Republic of Armenia are interpreted. To support this interpretation, the relevant legislation from the USSR at that time, as well as the Azerbaijan SSR's analogical citizenship acts are also evaluated. The article's goal is to assess the 1988–1991 deportation from the perspective of Armenian legislation. It was determined that the 1988–1991 deportation described in the article violated Armenia's constitutional acts in addition to other theoretical aspects and public legal relations. Keywords: citizenship, deportation, constitutional law, declaration of state independence, fall of the USSR, Azerbaijan-Armenia relations, Karabakh conflict.

РОЛЬ СССР И ДРУГИХ СТРАН СЭВ В РАЗВИТИИ ЭКОНОМИКИ СОЦИАЛИСТИЧЕСКОЙ РЕСПУБЛИКИ ВЬЕТНАМ (1976-1980 ГГ.)

The article presents a comparative characteristic of the assistance of the USSR and other countries of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance in the development of the national economy of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam in 1976-1980. The main directions of economic assistance to Vietnam from CMEA members are analyzed, the factors that influenced the dynamics and effectiveness of interaction between the parties are highlighted. As a result of the study of previously unpublished archival documents, as well as the works of domestic and foreign researchers, the author concludes about the decisive importance of the USSR in the structure of CMEA economic assistance to Vietnam. It is revealed that the USSR was the only member of CMEA, which on a permanent basis carried out significant cash injections into the economy of the SRV, despite the failure of the second five-year plan for the development of the national economy of Vietnam. It is noted that the USSR was involved in the construction of the largest, in comparison with other CMEA countries, the number of large objects of national economy in the territory of the SRV, which determined the dominant position of the Soviet side in the structure of providing the Vietnamese economy with necessary resources. It is established that unlike other CMEA countries, the Soviet Union helped the SRV in the construction of mining and energy industry enterprises, which were of strategic importance for the functioning of the national economy of the country. At the same time, the paper presents facts proving the important role of other CMEA countries in the development of the economy of the SRV. In particular, it is emphasized that the USSR's assistance in training Vietnamese workers was of equal importance compared to the total contribution to this process by the GDR, Czechoslovakia, and Bulgaria.

A Legal Analysis of the Unilateral Termination of Labor Contracts and Noteworthy Points for Mitigating Related Disputes

The Labor Code of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam was first promulgated in 1994 and was subsequently revised in 2002, 2006, and 2007. The economic and social conditions and labor relations have evolved, necessitating prompt amendments to labor legislation, resulting in the issuance of the Labor Code 2012. However, after five years of application, the 2012 Labor Code has revealed many deficiencies affecting employees' legal rights and interests, including the conditions that employees must meet when they wish to unilaterally terminate the labor contract; these conditions are considered very difficult to prove in the position of an employee. The Labor Code 2019 was enacted with several enhancements, including the elimination of regulations pertaining to unilateral conditions for employees, thereby safeguarding their right to select better employment opportunities and preventing and combating coerced labor. In this article, the author analyzes current law on unilateral termination of labor contracts, focusing on the legal aspect, and selects some common dispute practices related to unilateral termination of labor contracts that businesses and individuals should be aware of to protect their mutual legal rights and interests, as well as those of both parties.

Встановлення та юридичне оформлення кордонів Української РСР з сусідами – встановлення та часткові уточнення кордонів з РСФРР в 1920-х рр.

This article is the first part of a series of 5 articles dedicated to the establishment of the borders of the Ukrainian SSR (and its legal continuation under the Union Constitution of 5 December 1936 of the Ukrainian SSR) with the neighbouring Soviet republics – the RSFSR, the Belorussian SSR (BSSR) and the Moldavian ASSR (Moldavian Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic; since 1936 – the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic) and the latter’s legal successor – the Moldavian SSR. The author points out that the borders of the Ukrainian SSR and the RSFSR (the then names of the republics) in the 1920s were established not on the basis of the ethnographic principle, but for reasons of economic expediency, with priority consideration of Moscow’s interests. For example, the city of Sudzha, which at one time was proclaimed by the Bolsheviks as one of the capitals of “Soviet Ukraine”, became part of the RSFSR. The Russian side emphasised in every possible way that certain disputed regions were important for providing the RSFSR with bread, coal and labour, not stopping short of unilateral actions without the consent of the Ukrainian side and acts of sabotage during the transfer of certain disputed territories to the Ukrainian SSR. The position of the Ukrainians was weakened by the “international” leadership of the republic, driven by the Communist Party’s discipline. At the same time, the existing border between independent Ukraine and the Russian Federation should not be revised, and Ukraine does not claim any Russian territories, including Kursk, as stated in a special statement by the Ukrainian Foreign Ministry in August 2024.

Функционирование крымскотатарского языка в органах власти и управления Крымской АССР в контексте политики коренизации (20–30-е годы XX века)

The article analyzes the main directions of the indigenization policy. The use of the Crimean Tatar language in the work of government and management bodies has been studied. The Bolsheviks’ hopes for a proletarian revolution in Western Europe did not come true, and the vector of foreign policy hopes became the East (Turkey and Iran). The creation of the Crimean autonomy was supposed to demonstrate that the needs of the Turkic peoples could be resolved in the Soviet Union, but not in the principles of Kemalism, but in the Communist Party. In this task, the Crimean Tatars were to act as conductors of Bolshevik ideas. This circumstance formed the basis of the specificity of the policy of indigenization on the peninsula, which was reflected in the term “Tatarization”. A special direction of national policy has become the indigenization of government and administrative institutions, and an important political aspect is the use of the Crimean Tatar language in the area of state building. The author proposes a periodization of the implementation of national policy, which is divided into four stages. 1) 1917–1923 – search for conceptual principles for the implementation of ethnopolicy; 2) 1923–1928 – official proclamation of indigenization and an attack on national communists in the Turkic republics; 3) 1928–1934 – administrative stage; 4) 1934–1938 – formation of national collective farms and the Crimean Tatar proletariat. Research materials: The theoretical works of the leaders of the People’s Commissariat of Nationalities of the RSFSR were used, as well as unpublished documents from the State Archive of the Republic of Crimea. Results and novelty of the research:The article analyzes the relationship between various aspects of the indigenization policy in the Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic and the change in the legal status of the Crimean Tatar language.

German special settlers in the Udmurt Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in 1945–1955

The article is devoted to a group of Russian Germans stationed in Udmurtia in the status of special settlers. The purpose of the work is a general description of the main parameters of the ethno-legal and socio-cultural functioning of Germans-special settlers in Udmurtia in a foreign-language environment. The methodological basis of the study was an interdisciplinary approach at the intersection of history, sociology and ethnology, using problem-chronological and statistical methods, as well as interviewing and the method of expert assessments. The basis of the source base was made up of archival documents supplemented by the memories of participants and witnesses of the events. The study sheds light on one of the closed aspects of national history, contributes to the elimination of another "white" spot in the hushed-up history of the largest of the peoples of the USSR repressed during the Stalinist period.

Iconographic Aspects of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact: A Comparative Analysis of Documentary Photographs

Based on the surviving 1939 photographs and their comparative analysis, the article reveals the main visual differences that emerged when photographing two different German-USSR bilateral treaty signing ceremonies. This is important and relevant because in scientific literature, history textbooks and other educational materials, as well as in exhibitions and media articles devoted to history, photographsfrom the signing of the German–Soviet Boundary and Friendship Treaty on 28 September 1939 are often mistakenly used to illustrate the signing of the non-aggression pact concluded between Germany and the USSR in Moscow on 23 August 1939, five weeks earlier. Since these two treaties were signed by the same two people – Vyacheslav Molotov and Joachim von Ribbentrop – at the same desk in the same office of the Chairman of the Council of People’s Commissars of the USSR in the Moscow Kremlin, it is not that easy to distinguish at first glance which treaty is being signed in one photograph or another. The photographs are often confused, arbitrarily choosing the ones that look more expressive for the sake of illustration. The article presents visual material, its analysis, insights and generalisations that will help to avoid the photograph attribution errors that are so common in using old photographs to illustrate the signing of the 23 August 1939 Treaty of Non-Aggression between Germany and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

Lithuanians among prisoners of other ethnic groups in special-purpose camps of USSR MGB

Turganbek Allanijazov (the Republic of Kazakhstan, O. A. Baikonurov Zhezkazgan University), the author of this article, explores main statistical data related to the number of Lithuanians in special purpose camps of The Chief Administration of Corrective Labour Camps (GULAG) under the Ministry of State Security (MGB) of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), located in the territories of the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic and Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), in 1950–1954. Quantitative dynamics of Lithuanians is presented by years and camps. Tendencies and trends of quantitative change are shown. Camps with the greatest number of Lithuanians are specified, as well as those with the least number. The date within the lifetime period of camps known for the greatest number of Lithuanians as prisoners is indicated.

Attitude of the Kremlin towards “heresy” shown by J. Paleckis in 1946–1950

The aim of this article is, referring to the documents from Russian State Archive of Social Political History and other sources, to reveal how the leaders of the Central Committee of the All-Soviet Union Communist party (bolsheviks) and officers from the Central Committee apparatus valued manifestations of national communism demonstrated by J. Paleckis and his conflicts concerning the issues of sovietization of Lithuania with A. Sniečkus. The other purpose of this paper is to find out whether J. Paleckis, emphasizing specific conditions in Lithuania and wishing to mitigate the course of sovietization, received any support from the leaders in the Kremlin; why A. Sniečkus, who used to criticize J. Paleckis, did not try to remove him from the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Lithuanian Communist Party or dismiss him from the position of the chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Council of Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic. This article presents efforts made by J. Paleckis in order to find allies in Moscow, establish patron-client type relationship with Andrei Zhdanov, a secretary of the Central Committee of the All-Soviet Union Communist party (bolsheviks). The analysis of the sources allows us to draw some conclusions. It could be maintained that the secretaries of the Central Committee of the All-Soviet Union Communist party (bolsheviks) and leaders of divisions of the Central Committee apparatus closely watched the conflict displayed between J. Paleckis and A. Sniečkus and the majority of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Lithuanian Communist party (bolsheviks) led by the latter. These communists were anxious for unhealthy working climate in the Central Committee of the Lithuanian Communist party (bolsheviks). J. Paleckis‘s political conflicts were caused by manifestation of his national communism ideology, tendency to take care of local interests and his intersection with strict Marxist classic position taken by A. Sniečkus and by majority of other members of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Lithuanian Communist party (bolsheviks). It could be stated that political “heresy” of J. Paleckis, who was involved into a risky political games behind the scenes in order to make efforts and mitigate the course of sovietization policy, and his proposals to write into the agenda some elements of national communism seemed to the leaders of the Central Committee of the All-Soviet Union Communist party (bolsheviks) not just unnecessary but even hazardous. J. Paleckis’s attitude did not comply with provisions and interests of the authorities in the Kremlin, therefore, his efforts were not supported and were valued only negatively. On the other hand, the line of sovietization of Lithuania, to which A. Sniečkus adhered and his methods of governing the party, substantially coincided with the principal position of the authorities of the USSR, as well as with the general line of the Communist party, and, therefore, a prospect of losing the post of the first secretary of the Central Committee of the Lithuanian Communist party was negligible. J. Paleckis‘s efforts to compete with A. Sniečkus strengthened the authority of the latter. The first secretary of the Central Committee of the Lithuanian Communist party deliberately avoided taking considerable sanctions against J. Paleckis, he did not seek to dismiss J. Paleckis from the position occupied. This would have not been beneficial to A. Sniečkus, because a potential strike from Moscow could be directed against J. Paleckis, a “nationalist” and “heretic”. If J. Paleckis had been removed from the political arena, nobody would have covered A. Sniečkus against potential Moscow repressions. Continuous stress caused by confrontation with J. Paleckis allowed A. Sniečkus to manifest himself as a flawless implementer of political line of the Centre and, because of this, to enhance his position as the first secretary of the Central Committee of the Lithuanian Communist party.

Tuskulėnai Mass Burial Grounds Occurence: 1944 or 1945?

The purpose of this article is to establish the date when Soviet secret police agencies started to use the territory of Tuskulėnai Manor as mass burial grounds in Vilnius. The remains of people executed at the inner prison of the NKGB (MGB) of Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic were buried there. At the same time, another question had to be answered: who choose this place, Tuskulėnai Manor, as a location suitable for mass graves. Historiographical sources frequently apply a simplified scheme, stating that the territory of Tuskulėnai Manor started to be used as mass burial grounds from the date when at the inner prison of the NKGB of Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic death penalties started to be carried out, i.e., from the 28th September 1944. Still, when analysing more closely the data of archeologic excavations 1994-1996 in the territory of Tuskulėnai Manor, as well as reports of 2003 and NKGB (MGB) documents, some doubts occur whether there could be remains of 45 people buried that had been executed at secret police inner prison in September –December of the year 1944. Statistical analysis allows us to think than in autumn and winter of 1944, the territory of Tuskulėnai Manor had not been used for mass graves. NKGB (MGB) officers could bury the remains of the executed people employing other ways that had not been new for them: in single graves in the woods in Vilnius neighbourhood or in old cemeteries. Such methods were applied by the Soviet secret police agencies from the year 1950. Historiographical sources claim that the territory of Tuskulėnai Manor had been chosen for mass graves by Ivan Tkachenko, a lieutenant general, who had been appointed an authorized person by NKGB and NKVD of the USSR for Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic. This fact is confirmed in the documents of the Soviet secret police institutions. Still, there is no exact date of choosing this location indicated in these documents. I. Tkachenko, to coordinate activity of the repressive structures as an authorized person to Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic was appointed on 14th December 1944, while execution of prisoners at the inner prison of NKGB of Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic started on 28th September 1944. Such a chronological mismatch suggests that I. Tkachenko selected the territory of Tuskulėnai Manor for mass graves at the end of 1944 or at the beginning of 1945. New documents found in the archives confirm that Tuskulėnai Manor was handed over to the NKGB of Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic in January of 1945. Therefore, it can be stated, that the remains of people executed in the inner prison of the NKGB of Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic, first had been buried in the territory of Tuskulėnai Manor in January of 1945, while before that date, the Soviet secret police agencies applied different methods.

Organized labour migration of residents of Lithuania to the USSR in the sixth–ninth decades of the 20th century

Referring to archive and historiographic materials, in this paper problematics of labour migration to the USSR from Lithuania in 1953-1984 is analysed. Attention is drawn to migration directions, motivation of residents, quantitative indices, territorial aspects related to persons participating in labour migration process and social picture. Residents of Lithuania became participants of the campaign for organized all Soviet Union-wide labour force migration to participate in implementation of large and important land, forestry and industry projects. By the way, the residents of our Republic joined this campaign later than residents from other Republics – in 1953 only. Organized labour force migration from Lithuania to the USSR was of lower level that it had been planned in Moscow. The main directions of labour force migration were: 1) agriculture intensification program (virgin lands campaigns in Kazakhstan and Russia); 2) Russian forestry development program; 3) program of construction of gigantic transport and industrial objects in Russia (Siberia, etc.); 4) the “Third Semester” program – season-based works of students in industry and agriculture sectors of Russia, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and other Soviet Republics. In 6th-9th decades of the 20th century, about 75 thousand residents of Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic were sent to work in other regions of the Soviet Union; labour migrants worked on industrial objects, farms and forestry units. Mostly, they were men from urban areas, by ethnic composition – Russians and Lithuanians. The most intensive time period of sending to work as labour migrants was the 1953-1965 period, as at that time in Kazakhstan and Russia huge programs of economic development had been implemented (virgin lands campaign, forestry development). Namely during this period, over 80 per cent of residents of Lithuania who participated in this campaign were sent to labour destinations. Although in later years the migration campaign covered entire Lithuania, its scale diminished markedly. Due to certain national traits of Lithuanians (sedentary life, attachment to the land) and social-economic situation in the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (fast and intensive industry development ensuring quite good wages, well-developed social infrastructure, etc.), the residents of Lithuania liked to conclude short-term employment agreements, and after termination of these agreements made efforts to return to Lithuania and stay there not attracted by labour migration campaign anymore.

Model of activity of Mayor Aleksey Sokolov and agents stormtroopers under his leadership

In the public narrative on partisan warfare, an extremely important role is played by agents stormtroopers under Mayor Aleksey Sokolov leadership. Many have heard that this person was “the leader of all-Ukrainian agents stormtroopers”, who was sent to Lithuania to organize the activity of agents stormtroopers. Yet, the information known about this person has been scarce so far. By this article it is sought to provide some facts on the biography of A. Sokolov and highlight the principles of activity of special groups under his leadership. A. Sokolov was a specialist in the specific agency-operational area. He was a recipient of various insignia and other honorary awards, which demonstrated appreciation of his activity by the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission (Cheka) authorities. On the other hand, legality of methods used by A. Sokolov and stormtroopers under his leadership raised doubts. It is likely that namely this problem prevented him from awarding the title of the Hero of the Soviet Union. It took to A. Sokolov less than one year of working with the special group in order to create a model of stormtroopers usage adapted to fighting the Ukrainian partisans. In doing this, A. Sokolov consulted the stormtroopers themselves. While being on secondment in Lithuania, he reformed the special group of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD) of Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (LSSR) according to the Ukrainian model. The operation that took place in Grendavė village of Onuškis Rural District in Trakai County was in line with the model of operations carried out in Ukraine: on the basis of operational data, a legend had been created, a list of persons to be detained and interrogated compiled, the stormtroopers, dressed and equipped as the Red Army soldiers, prepared bunkers for future interrogations, wrote minutes containing evidence of the persons detained, etc. A. Sokolov’s expertise and methodical guidance laid the foundation for practical activity of special groups in Lithuania. Further on, the stormtroopers actually employed the tactics, created by A. Sokolov.

Inner Prison of the NKGB (MGB, KGB) of Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic 1944–1959

This study discloses the 1944-1959 period history of the inner prison of NKGB (Narodny Komissariat Gosudarstvennoy bezopasnosti, English translation – The People‘s Commissariat for State Security) of Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic, including MGB (Ministerstvo Gosudarstvennoy Bezopasnosti, English translation – the Ministry for State Security) and KGB (Komitet Gosudarstvennoy Bezopasnosti, English translation – Committee for State Security) as users of this prison. The significance of this prison in the common system of prisons under State Security Institutions is analysed as well as the cases of collaboration with the prisons operating under Ministry of Internal Affairs. Inner prison routine is analysed: living conditions of prisoners, regime, etc. Direct links between the work of the Interrogation Division of the NKGB (MGB, KGB) of Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic and inner prison are disclosed, as well as the procedure of execution at the inner prison. The inner prison was the most important prison of the Soviet secret police organization (Cheka) in Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic – political prisoners of special importance were imprisoned there and interrogated in the Interrogation Division located in the same building. In the first post-war years, the inner prison was overcrowded, and prison conditions were poor. They improved just at the end of the fifth decade, because the number of imprisoned persons decreased, and bunks were installed in the cells. In the first post-war decade, during interrogation sessions, employees at the Interrogation Division used to apply not only psychological violence against prisoners, but physical violence as well. In 1953, officially, physical torture measures were prohibited, still cases of physical torturing of prisoners happened even much later. In the period 1944–1969, death sentences were carried out in the inner prison. Over one quarter of the last century, 1 019 persons were executed. Although an official method of carrying out the capital punishment used to be squad firing, the investigation of remains of those executed and buried in the burial grounds in Tuskulėnai, show that people who had been sentenced to death penalty, sometimes, during first post-war years at least, were just tortured to death.