Social Rank Variables Research Articles

Stressed, depressed, and rank obsessed: Individual differences in compassion and neuroticism predispose towards rank-based depressive symptomatology.

As social creatures, we monitor our relative rank and/or status with others via social comparisons. Whilst research has identified perceptions of inferiority or 'low rank' relative to others is a robust predictor of depressive, anxious, and stress symptomology, to date individual differences have been ignored. We wish to provide empirical evidence to outline how differences across personality traits may interact with social rank variables to buffer or predispose towards depressive symptomology. Across three independent samples (N=595), we replicated a social rank model of mental health, and with our third sample (N=200), we sought to investigate attenuating roles for neuroticism versus compassion with multiple moderated regression models. Neuroticism predicted greater levels of rank-associated depression, and compassion failed to function as a protective factor for rank-associated depression. However, a closer inspection of the original Big-5 factor structure positions this scale as a measure of 'interpersonal submissiveness' or 'conflict appeasement' rather than genuine compassion. Whilst it is necessary to delineate the conditions where compassion is appropriate and able to lead to positive mental health outcomes, we argue this cannot be addressed with the Big-5 measure of trait compassion. We call for future work to consider valid and reliable measures for compassion, such as the self-compassion scale, submissive compassion scale, and fears of compassion scale, to more fully address how compassion may protect against both rank-based comparisons and severity of depression. Social rank mechanisms are robustly implicated in depression, anxiety, and stress. Clients who present as higher in neuroticism, inferiority, or submissiveness may be more prone towards rank-associated depression symptoms. Preliminary evidence suggests cultivation of genuine compassion can shift clients from a rank-focussed to a compassionate-focussed mentality, which aids mental health and fosters well-being.

Are shame and self-criticism the path to the pervasive effect of social stress reactivity on social functioning in psychosis?

It is widely known that stress reactivity and social functioning impairment are important difficulties in people with psychosis. However, the specific impact of stress reactivity on social functioning and its underlying mechanisms are still less explored. Social rank variables, such as shame and self-criticism, have been pointed out as relevant in the development, maintenance of several types of psychosocial suffering and, specifically, in psychotic disorders. This study's aim was to explore the associations between external shame, self-criticism, social stress reactivity, and social functioning difficulties and understand the mediator role of shame and self-criticism in the relationship between social stress reactivity and social functioning. Seventy-seven participants with a psychotic disorder filled in self-reported measures of stress reactivity, shame, and self-criticism and were clinically evaluated for social functioning. To study the associations between variables in the study, Spearman correlation coefficients were used. The PROCESS macro was used to test the sequential mediation analyses. All variables under study were associated with each other, and social stress reactivity predicted social functioning difficulties through external shame, whereas self-criticism was not a significant mediator. The present study highlights the role of external shame in the pathway from stress reactivity to social impairment. These results inform recovery-oriented interventions and reinforce the relevance of considering social competitive mentality when working with people with psychosis. Further research is needed to clarify the role of self-to-self relationship in social impairment and to identify other mechanisms aimed at dealing with shame used by people with psychosis.

Entrapment and Defeat Perceptions in Depressive Symptomatology: Through an Evolutionary Approach

The social rank and arrested defenses model for mood disorders bridges between animal and human models of psychopathology. There is increasing evidence that depression is associated with subordinated and loss of social rank, feeling inferior, shame, submissive behavior, and feeling defeated. These stressful states activate threat coping responses of fight and flight. If these are aroused but blocked, feelings of entrapment emerge with a negative impact on mood. The current study builds on previous studies and explores the association between depressive symptoms, social rank variables (of social comparison and submissive behavior), entrapment, and defeat in a sample of patients (n = 106) with major depression and in a sample of healthy controls (n = 116). Results showed that social rank variables, entrapment, and defeat were strongly associated with depressive symptoms in both samples. Entrapment and defeat showed significant association with other social rank variables. Logistic regression analysis revealed that defeat and internal entrapment were significant predictors of the belonging to the clinical or control groups. The present study extends previous research and supports the importance of defeat and external entrapment in clinical depression.

The Contribution of Social Rank and Attachment Theory to Depression in a Non Clinical Sample of Adolescents

This study explores the relative contribution of the overall quality of attachment to the mother, to the father and to peers (Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment scales), the style of attachment towards peers (Attachment Questionnaire for Children scale), the social rank variables (submissive behavior and social comparison), and sex and age variables in predicting the depression score (Center of Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale) on a non-psychiatric sample of 13-18 year old adolescents (n = 225). Results of our integrated model (adjusted R-Square of .50) show that attachment variables (overall quality of attachment to the father and to the mother), social rank variables (social comparison and submissive behavior), age and sex are important in predicting depressive symptoms during adolescence. Moreover, the attachment to peers variables (quality of attachment to peers, secure and ambivalent style of attachment) and sex are mediated by the social rank variables (social comparison and submissive behavior).

Self‐harm in a mixed clinical population: The roles of self‐criticism, shame, and social rank

This study explored the relationship of forms and functions of self-criticism, shame, and social rank variables to self-harm, depression, and anxiety. The study used a questionnaire design. In-patients and day-patients (N=73) completed a series of questionnaires measuring self-harm, mood, self-criticism, shame, and social comparison. Self-harm was significantly associated with forms and functions of self-criticism, shame, and feelings of inferiority (low social rank). The self-persecuting function of self-criticism was especially linked to self-harm, depression, and anxiety. This study adds to a growing literature on the importance of recognizing the pathogenic effects of negative self-critical thoughts and feelings about the self and the value of distinguishing different types of self-criticism.

The dark side of competition: How competitive behaviour and striving to avoid inferiority are linked to depression, anxiety, stress and self‐harm

This study was guided by the social rank theory of depression and aimed to explore the relationship between depression, anxiety, stress and self-harm with striving to avoid inferiority, feelings of shame and styles of attachment. Participants diagnosed with depression (n = 62) completed a series of questionnaires measuring striving to avoid inferiority, fears of missing out, being overlooked and active rejection, attachment, social rank and psychopathologies. Striving to avoid inferiority was significantly linked to social rank variables and anxious attachment. Mediator analyses revealed that the relationship between striving to avoid inferiority and depression was mediated by the social rank variable of external shame, and also anxious attachment. These findings suggest that elevated competitive behaviour can have a 'dark side'. When people feel insecure in their social environments, it can focus them on a hierarchical view of themselves and others, with a fear of rejection if they feel they have become too inferior or subordinate. This may increase vulnerability to depression, anxiety and stress.

The role of personality in defeat: a revised social rank model

This study sought to test the role of personality within the social rank theory of depression. Specifically, self‐criticism was hypothesised to be a risk factor for mechanisms underlying involuntary subordination, while self‐efficacy was hypothesised to have a protective function. Involuntary subordination has been implicated as an underlying cause of depression and it was therefore important to determine the personality variables and other intrapsychic mechanisms that lead to this condition. The sample consisted of 115 participants (average age of 20.2 years) who were involved in athletic competition. Participants were evaluated at baseline for personality and social rank variables and for mood immediately before and after a competitive match. Two models were tested: the first model showed that self‐criticism and neuroticism predicted a heightened perception of defeat following a loss. Self‐criticism also predicted an inability to accept defeat which was associated with a latent variable interpreted as involuntary subordination. The second model demonstrated that self‐efficacy was associated with a more adaptive response to defeat, being negatively related to the perception of defeat. Both models proved to be viable and suggest that different personality styles confer specific vulnerabilities to involuntary subordination in the context of defeating events. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The relationship between command hallucinations and factors of compliance: A critical review of the literature

Within the context of the general debate regarding mental illness and violence, clinicians are often asked to provide a professional judgement regarding the risk posed by patient reports of command hallucinations. Those studies that specifically highlight factors associated with the issue of compliance with command hallucinations and associated risk are reviewed here. It is evident that early research reflected a preoccupation with command content, while more recent studies have identified a need to pinpoint important psychological variables, such as beliefs about voices, social rank variables, perceptions of responsibility for the consequences of compliance, and consequences of non-compliance. Current opinion indicates that aspects of both command content and beliefs about the voice require assessment as possible determinants of risk. Important areas of assessment by the clinician are highlighted. Areas requiring future study are considered.

Relationship of anhedonia and anxiety to social rank, defeat and entrapment

There is good evidence to suggest that depression is highly correlated with perceptions of low rank and subordinate status (i.e. feeling inferior, low-self esteem, feeling that others look down on the self, and submissive behaviour). However, it is possible for people to feel inferior and anxious, and behave submissively but not necessarily be depressed. More recently two other processes, defeat and entrapment, have attracted attention as possible processes linked specifically to depression and anhedonia. This research explored the relationship of these variables (social rank variables and defeat and entrapment) to two measures of hedonic tone (low positive affectivity and anhedonia) and anxiety in both a clinical and student population. All variables were strongly associated with lowered hedonic tone and anxiety. However, partial correlations, and a structural equation model fitted to the data from combined groups, suggests that perceptions of defeat play a specifically important role in anhedonia as measured by low positive affect. Framed within an evolutionary model the data suggest that the mechanisms which evolved to help animals accommodate and respond to defeats may have important regulatory effects over positive affect, reducing exploration of and engagement with the environment.

Dimensions of perfectionism: A study exploring their relationship with perceived social rank and status

Research on perfectionism has found it to be a multidimensional construct consisting of self-oriented, other-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism. This study administered questionnaires to 113 undergraduate students in an attempt to examine perfectionism in relation to a number of social rank variables (social comparison, submissive behaviour, shame and defeat) and measures of psychopathology. Socially prescribed perfectionism was significantly correlated with negative evaluations of social comparison, submissive behaviour, shame and defeat. Socially prescribed perfectionism was also the only dimension to be significantly correlated with depression. Self-oriented perfectionism showed a small but significant correlation with social comparison, but none of the other social rank and status variables. The findings are discussed in relation to social rank theory.

The Social Importance of Orthodontic Rehabilitation: Report of a Five Year Follow-Up Study

The research tested the assumption that orthodontic treatment might alleviate social discrimination due to malocclusion. Two hundred and fifty-two persons were interviewed approximately five years after finishing orthodontic treatment and compared to sixty-seven persons with untreated malocclusions who were also interviewed to see if there were differences which might be due to orthodontic treatment in social rank variables, courtship, self-concept, and in personality measures. There were small differences, barely statistically significant, in occupational rank but not in social class or educational level, in engagement and marriage but not in other dating patterns, in assessment of personal appearance but not in self-esteem, in anxiety scores but not in extraversion or neuroticism. The relatively small differences do not permit the unequivocal rejection of the possibility that orthodontic treatment makes little or no social difference, perhaps because malocclusion does not often serve as a basis for social discrimination or because the untreated persons compensate in their role performance.