Social Positive Reinforcement Research Articles

Modeling and simulation of rumor propagation and optimal control strategy based on social positive reinforcement

Modeling and simulation of rumor propagation and optimal control strategy based on social positive reinforcement

Identification of Affective- and Social-Reinforcement Functions of Driven Exercise: Evidence From Three Samples

Driven exercise is a transdiagnostic maladaptive behavior, especially common in eating disorders (EDs); however, its maintenance mechanisms remain poorly understood. To address this gap, we examined the applicability of previously empirically derived and validated reinforcement-function models in explaining driven-exercise maintenance in studies varying across developmental stages and clinical presentations (Study 1: N = 279 adolescents/adults oversampled for EDs; Study 2: N = 118 adolescent/adult inpatients with severe EDs; Study 3: N = 52 adults oversampled for athletes and/or EDs). Results supported the utility of a four-function model (automatic positive reinforcement [APR]/automatic negative reinforcement [ANR; increase positive/decrease negative affect], social positive reinforcement [SPR]/social negative reinforcement [SNR; engage in/avoid interpersonal situations]) in explaining driven exercise. APR was most frequently endorsed, followed by ANR, SNR, and SPR in all studies. APR correlated with last-month driven-exercise episodes across studies; associations between other functions and ED psychopathology varied between studies. Furthermore, results suggested a separate control function could be considered in samples with more severe EDs.

Expanding a laboratory model for evaluating relapse of caregiver nonadherence.

Caregiver adherence to treatment plans is likely maintained by negative reinforcement and can contact extinction when child responding relapses. When caregiver adherence contacts extinction, caregiver nonadherence, such as reinforcing their child's challenging behavior, relapses, threatening treatment efficacy. Previous laboratory models demonstrating the relapse of caregiver nonadherence only evaluated treatment for behavior maintained by social-positive reinforcement, not that maintained by social-negative reinforcement. These models only measured caregiver nonadherence as discrete events, which cannot capture the magnitude of each error. The present study was an evaluation of the relapse of caregiver nonadherence during simulated treatments for escape-maintained challenging behavior. First, caregivers placed demands in a home-like setting and a research confederate responded to these demands in a manner mimicking clinical clients. Next, caregivers were taught to implement treatment in a clinical setting and the confederate's behavior gradually improved. Last, caregivers returned to the home-like setting and confederate challenging behavior relapsed. Nonadherence relapsed for all caregivers, demonstrating the need for additional research on methods for mitigating caregiver relapse during treatment of children's challenging behavior and the usefulness of the proposed measurement system for future research.

Non-suicidal self-injury function: prevalence in adolescents with depression and its associations with non-suicidal self-injury severity, duration and suicide.

Given that adolescents with depression are at the highest risk for non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI), a thorough understanding of their NSSI functions, as well as associations between functions and severe behavioral consequences, is essential for risk assessment and invention development. Adolescents with depression from 16 hospitals across China, for whom data was available regarding their NSSI function, frequency, number of methods used, time characteristics, and suicide history were included. Descriptive statistical analyses were performed to determine the prevalence of NSSI functions. Regression analyses were conducted to explore the relationship between NSSI functions and behavioral characteristics of NSSI and suicide attempts. Affect regulation was the primary function of NSSI and followed by anti-dissociation in adolescents with depression. Females recognized automatic reinforcement functions more frequently than males, while males had a higher prevalence of social positive reinforcement functions. Automatic reinforce functions played the prominent role in associations between NSSI functions and all the severe behavioral consequences. Specifically, functions of anti-dissociation, affect regulation, and self-punishment were all associated with NSSI frequency, while higher levels of endorsements for anti-dissociation and self-punishment were linked to more NSSI methods, and greater level of endorsement for anti-dissociation was related to longer NSSI duration. Only the increase in endorsement of self-punishment was associated with a greater hazard of suicide attempts. The dominant functions of NSSI in adolescents with depression was automatic reinforcement, specifically affect regulation. And prevalence of NSSI function differed between males and females. Anti-dissociation and self-punishment seemed to be the most risky factors as they were linked to severe NSSI or suicide behaviors. More attention should be given to these functions in risk evaluation, and the targeted interventions should be developed accordingly in a timely manner.

The unique relationship between childhood sexual abuse, self‐injury and suicide ideation: The mediating role of emotion dysregulation

AbstractChild sexual abuse (CSA) has serious short‐term and long‐term effects, including non‐suicidal self‐injury (NSSI) and suicidal ideation (SI). One possible thread linking CSA to NSSI and suicide risk is emotion dysregulation. The current study assessed whether facets of emotion dysregulation mediated relations of NSSI behaviours and functions, and SI. Participants (N = 121; Mean age = 18.69, age‐range 18–22; 78 per cent female), college students with a history of childhood trauma, completed an online survey. Results indicated that facets of emotion dysregulation (i.e. clarity, non‐acceptance) mediated the relationship between CSA and SI. CSA was associated with automatic negative reinforcement, social negative and social positive reinforcement NSSI functions, but was not associated with NSSI behaviours. Emotion dysregulation facets did not mediate the relationship between CSA and NSSI functions. Findings highlight the need to help CSA survivors have clarity and acceptance of emotional experiences to reduce SI risk.This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial or not‐for‐profit sectors.

Self-injurious behavior of children with autism in Vietnam: A cross sectional study

This study explored self-injurious behavior (SIB) of autistic children in Vietnam through a cross-sectional design. 60 informants, including 57 parents and 3 caregivers completed the questionnaire on problem behavior consisting of aggression, self-injury, stereotyping, property destruction, other problem behaviors and their functions. Results revealed that children experienced all mentioned problem behaviors, especially self-injurious behavior. The topographies of self-injurious behavior of the children included head-hitting, head-scratching, head-banging, hair-pulling, face-hitting, face-puncturing with a pen, ear-scratching, lip-picking, hand-biting, hand-scratching, hand-pinching, and belly-scratching. The most common area of self-injurious behavior is the head. The functions of these problem behaviors were expressed in four types (social positive reinforcement, social negative reinforcement, automatic positive reinforcement and automatic negative reinforcement). Social positive reinforcement appeared as a prominent function.  Out of these 57 children, 21 of them who were autistic with self-injurious behavior went through a functional assessment (FA) in which the four conditions known as attention, tangible items, escape from task/activities, automatic stimulation were tested. The results of functional analysis (FA) further indicated the correspondence between the FAST-R and FA outcome on function of problem behavior, especially self-injurious behavior. Results also showed that the prominent function of these self-injurious behaviors was social function. It means self-injurious behaviors usually occur within a condition of social interaction, especially, in this present study, in the tangible condition. The antecedent of self-injurious behavior is the removal of tangibles (e.g. food, preferred items). This paper contributes to our knowledge of self-injurious behavior of children with autism in Vietnam where empirical research of this field was still very rare.&nbsp

Functional assessment of restrictive eating: A three-study clinically heterogeneous and transdiagnostic investigation.

Restrictive eating is common and associated with negative psychological outcomes across the life span and eating disorder (ED) severity levels. Little is known about functional processes that maintain restriction, especially outside of narrow diagnostic categories (e.g., anorexia nervosa). Here, we extend research on operant four-function models (identifying automatic negative, automatic positive, social negative, and social positive reinforcement functions) that have previously been applied to nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI), binge eating, and purging to restricting. We assessed restrictive eating functions in three samples: clinically heterogeneous adolescents (Study 1: N = 457), transdiagnostic adults (Study 2: N = 145), and adults with acute or recently weight-restored anorexia nervosa (Study 3: N = 45). Study 1 indicated the four-function model was a good fit for restricting (root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA] = .06, Tucker-Lewis index [TLI] = .88). This factor structure replicated in Study 2 (comparative fit index [CFI] = .97, RMSEA = .07, TLI = .97, standardized root mean square residual [SRMR] = .09). Unlike NSSI, binge eating, and purging, which have been found to primarily serve automatic negative reinforcement functions, all three present studies found automatic positive reinforcement was most highly endorsed (by up to 85% of participants). In Studies 1 and 3, automatic functions were associated with poorer emotion regulation (ps < .05). In Study 1, social functions were associated with less social support (ps < .001). Across studies, automatic functions were associated with greater restriction ps < .05). Functions varied slightly by ED diagnosis. Across ED presentation, severity, and developmental stage, restrictive eating may be largely maintained by automatic positive reinforcement, with some variability across presentations. Continued examination of restrictive eating functions will establish processes that maintain restriction, allowing more precise treatment targeting for these problematic behaviors. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Dynamic analysis of the rumor propagation model with consideration of the wise man and social reinforcement

Rumor is defined as an unconfirmed public opinion or gossip, which can be propagated through various channels, causing serious economic losses and disturbing the normal order of life. Therefore, studying the rumor propagation mechanism is helpful to implement effective rumor propagation control strategies. In this paper, the wise man is involved in the dynamic process of rumor propagation, and the modified rumor propagation model is established with consideration of social reinforcement and forgetting factors in heterogeneous network. The theories analysis of the model is carried out based on the mean field equation. The rumor propagation threshold is obtained, which is closely related to dual social reinforcement, wisdom conversion rate and forgetting factors. The final size of the rumor is related to positive social reinforcement and negative social reinforcement. Numerical simulations indicate that, the social positive reinforcement promotes rumor propagation and social negative reinforcement suppresses rumor propagation. And the addition of wise men reduces the number of spreaders, thus affecting the process of rumor propagation.

Examining the Effectiveness of a Variable Momentary Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior Procedure on Reduction and Maintenance of Problem Behavior

To evaluate the effectiveness of variable-momentary differential reinforcement of other behavior (VM DRO) schedules in the reduction and maintenance of problem behavior. Specifically, will VM DRO be effective in reducing severe problem behavior for two children diagnosed with developmental disorders (DD)? Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) has been demonstrated to be effective in reducing severe problem behavior for decades. However, recent manipulations to the schedule of delivery have led to advancements in DRO. Indicatively, VM DRO has been an effective intervention for automatically reinforced as well as social-positive maintained behavior for individuals with developmental disabilities. There is a dearth of research on variable- and fixed-momentary DRO schedules for individuals with DD; therefore, more examinations may be necessary. Two case studies of individuals who had been diagnosed with developmental disabilities were reviewed. Functional analyses were conducted and indicated that problem behavior for both participants was maintained by social-positive reinforcement. VM DRO was effective at reducing one participant’s problem behavior. Fixed interval differential reinforcement of other behavior (FI DRO) was effective at reducing the other participant’s problem behavior. Findings suggest that VM DRO may not be effective at reducing problem behavior for all individuals and that outcomes may be idiosyncratic.

Validity of a Functional Assessment for Smoking Treatment Recommendations Questionnaire

Smoking is the leading cause of preventable death in the United States and imposes a substantial economic cost. Despite the well-established potential harm, relapse rates remain high during quit attempts. In the realm of applied behavior analysis, functional assessment has long been recognized as a reliable method to increase effectiveness of treatments for a variety of problem behaviors. Functional assessment may aid in designating targeted treatment for smokers based on the maintaining function(s) of the behavior. The current study (N = 414) sought to assess the reliability and validity of the Functional Assessment of Smoking for Treatment Recommendations (FASTR) and provide preliminary evidence towards a hypothesized factor structure. The full FASTR included five subscales derived from the field of functional behavior assessment: 1) Automatic Positive Reinforcement, 2) Social Positive Reinforcement, 3) Automatic Negative Reinforcement, 4) Social Negative Reinforcement, and 5) Antecedent Stimuli. The full battery of subscales was found to be adequately reliable and valid, with overall sample reliability coefficients ranging from α = 0.69 to α = 0.90. Confirmatory factor analysis of the five-factor model produced acceptable fit indices (CFI = 0.908, TLI = 0.896, RMSEA = 0.059, SRMR = 0.071). A five-factor model performed favorably across several fit indices, providing preliminary validity for the FASTR. Further research should aim to replicate the observed factor structure in other samples and establish the clinical utility of the FASTR.

Functional analysis and intervention of perseverative speech in students with high-functioning autism and related neurodevelopmental disabilities.

Although perseverative speech is a common characteristic of individuals with high-functioning neurodevelopmental disabilities, little is known about the operant functions of these verbalizations. We conducted analogue functional analyses of perseverative speech for 2 students using reinforcement contingencies that included alone, attention, control, escape, and tangible conditions. Results showed the following patterns: attention only (Charlotte) or multiply determined including an attention function (Paul). We then tested an intervention for perseverative speech maintained by social positive reinforcement that included differential reinforcement of alternative behavior and extinction of perseverative speech for 1 participant. The intervention reduced perseverative speech, but did not increase appropriate speech until we added a prompting component. We then replicated this three-component intervention with Paul. The results showed moderate to high decreases in levels of perseverative speech and increased appropriate verbalizations in both cases. The results systematically replicated the interventions of previous studies by adding a prompting component to the intervention.

The Effects of Peer Presence on Variables Maintaining Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity in Children.

An increasing number of children fail to meet the recommended levels of physical activity. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of peer presence on variables that have been shown to evoke moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in children. We recorded the levels of MVPA in three preschool children across no adult, attention, and interactive play conditions, with a peer present and absent. All conditions were compared with a naturalistic baseline and presented in a multielement design with a brief reversal to baseline and reintroduction of the most effective condition. All three participants displayed most MVPA during the interactive play condition with a peer present. This study furthers research on the identification of variables that evoke MVPA in young children and emphasizes the interaction of peer presence and contingent social positive reinforcement as relevant variables.

Systematic Review of Functional Analysis and Treatment of Elopement (2000-2015).

Elopement is a dangerous behavior that is emitted by a large proportion of individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Functional analysis and function-based treatments are critical in identifying maintaining reinforcers and decreasing elopement. The purpose of this review was to identify recent trends in the functional analysis and treatment of elopement, as well as determine the efficacy (standardized mean differences) of recent treatments. Over half of subjects' elopement was maintained by social positive reinforcement, while only 25% of subjects' elopement was maintained by social negative reinforcement. Elopement was rarely maintained by automatic reinforcement, and none of the studies in the current review evaluated treatments to address automatically maintained elopement. Functional communication training was the most common intervention regardless of function. Results are discussed in terms of clinical implications and directions for future research.

Examining Nock and Prinstein's four-function model with offenders who self-injure.

Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) is the deliberate bodily harm or disfigurement without suicidal intent and for purposes not socially sanctioned (e.g., cutting, burning, head banging). Nock and Prinstein (2004) proposed a 4-function model (FFM) of NSSI, in which the functions of NSSI are categorized by two dichotomous factors: (a) positive (i.e., involves the addition of a favorable stimulus) or negative (i.e., involves the removal of an aversive stimulus; and (b) automatic (i.e., intrapersonal) or social (i.e., interpersonal). This study examined the validity of this model with incarcerated populations. In-depth semistructured interviews with 201 incarcerated offenders were analyzed and categorized based on the FFM. Participants' descriptions of functions of NSSI were most commonly categorized as automatic negative reinforcement (25.0%; e.g., coping with negative emotions), followed by automatic positive reinforcement (31.3%; e.g., self-punishment), social positive reinforcement (31.3%; e.g., to communicate with others), and social negative reinforcement (12.5%; e.g., to avoid hurting someone else). While the uniqueness of the correctional environment affects some of the specific functions evident in offenders, FFM can be used to adequately organize the functions of NSSI in offenders, providing a useful tool for explaining this complex behavior. Clinically, NSSI in offenders can be viewed has having the same underlying motivations, although automatic positive reinforcement is more prevalent in offenders and social positive reinforcement is more prevalence in nonoffenders. Given that the motivations underlying nonsuicidal self-injury are similar for offender and nonoffender populations, similar treatment approaches may be effective with both populations. (PsycINFO Database Record

FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS AND TREATMENT OF PROBLEM BEHAVIOR IN EARLY EDUCATION CLASSROOMS

We conducted functional analyses (FA) with 4 typically developing preschool children during ongoing classroom activities and evaluated treatments that were based on FA results. Results of each child's FA suggested social-positive reinforcement functions, and differential reinforcement of alternative behavior plus time-out was effective in decreasing problem behavior and increasing appropriate behavior. We discuss the utility of classroom-based FAs and potential compromises to experimental control.

FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF INAPPROPRIATE SOCIAL INTERACTIONS IN STUDENTS WITH ASPERGER'S SYNDROME

We analyzed the inappropriate social interactions of 3 students with Asperger's syndrome whose behavior was maintained by social positive reinforcement. We tested whether inappropriate social behavior was sensitive to social positive reinforcement contingencies and whether such contingencies could be reversed to increase the probability of socially appropriate responding. Our results show that social positive reinforcers can be identified for inappropriate social interactions and that appropriate social behaviors can be sensitive to reinforcement contingency reversals.

TOPOGRAPHICAL AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF PRECURSORS TO SEVERE PROBLEM BEHAVIOR

A literature search identified 17 articles reporting data on 34 subjects who engaged in precursors to severe problem behavior, which we examined to identify topographical and functional characteristics. Unintelligible vocalization was the most common precursor to aggression (27%) and property destruction (29%), whereas self- or nondirected movement was the most common precursor to SIB (32%). Unintelligible vocalization and object-directed movement were the most common precursors to behavior maintained by social-positive reinforcement (27% each), and unintelligible vocalization was the most common precursor to behavior maintained by social-negative reinforcement (29%). Only one precursor was reported for behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement.

Effects of Noncontingent Reinforcement and Choice of Activity on Aggressive Behavior Maintained by Attention

Functional assessments identified that the grabbing behavior of a 24‐year‐old man with intellectual disability was maintained by social positive reinforcement, that is, attention. Aggression was more likely to occur when his social environment changed from high to low attention. An intervention that combined extinction with activity choice and noncontingent reinforcement was most effective at reducing grabbing. The intervention and beneficial effects were maintained over 17 months, although staff retraining was required at 6 and 16 months. Retraining was implemented successfully when aggression increased and procedural integrity had declined. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

EVALUATION OF FIXED MOMENTARY DRO SCHEDULES UNDER SIGNALED AND UNSIGNALED ARRANGEMENTS

Fixed momentary schedules of differential reinforcement of other behavior (FM DRO) generally have been ineffective as treatment for problem behavior. Because most early research on FM DRO included presentation of a signal at the end of the DRO interval, it is unclear whether the limited effects of FM DRO were due to (a) the momentary response requirement of the schedule per se or (b) discrimination of the contingency made more salient by the signal. To separate these two potential influences, we compared the effects of signaled versus unsignaled FM DRO with 4 individuals with developmental disabilities whose problem behavior was maintained by social-positive reinforcement. During signaled FM DRO, the experimenter presented a visual stimulus 3 s prior to the end of the DRO interval and delivered reinforcement contingent on the absence of problem behavior at the second the interval elapsed. Unsignaled DRO was identical except that interval termination was not signaled. Results indicated that signaled FM DRO was effective in decreasing 2 subjects' problem behavior, whereas an unsignaled schedule was required for the remaining 2 subjects. These results suggest that the response requirement per se of FM DRO may not be problematic if it is not easily discriminated.

Practical issues in effective behavioral intervention development.

There is a consensus in the behavioral literature that treatments based on the results of a functional assessment are more effective than treatments that are selected arbitrarily (e.g., Carr & Durand, 1985; Paclawskyj, Kurtz, & O'Connor, 2004). By identifying the functional reinforcers that maintain problem behavior, practitioners can design interventions that are more efficient (i.e., it narrows the list of potential interventions to choose from) and more effective. Linking treatments to functional assessment results has become standard clinical practice and has found its way into the language of federal and state legislation. This has been a positive and robust change in the behavioral intervention process. While the concept of linking treatment to function has logical appeal, practical issues arise when implementing these strategies in applied settings. In many cases, staff and caregivers may not know how to link assessment to treatment or the main components of effective function-based intervention. In other words, some care providers may complete a functional behavioral assessment (as is often required by law), but the assessment not translate into a function-based intervention due to a skill deficit on the part of the practitioner designing the intervention (i.e., they do not know how to select an appropriate treatment based on the results). Furthermore, the implementation of treatment may be affected by the level of training and expertise among direct care staff members and on-site supervisors. In many applied settings, direct care staff often do not receive proper training to effectively implement behavior intervention plans. In some cases, the primary procedure for training a staff member is to provide them with a written description of the procedure (i.e., the behavior plan). These concerns about the adequacy of staff/caregiver can have significant deleterious effects from a clinical standpoint, as improper implementation may result in negative outcomes for, not only the learner, but for staff and caregivers as well. Other practical implementation issues may involve the way treatment effectiveness is evaluated itself in applied settings. A thorough analysis of the maintaining mechanisms of the problem behavior is the cornerstone of the intervention, but uncovering functions alone is not enough to ensure an effective intervention. The real life challenges presented by implementation can be addressed with judicious assessment, sensitive treatment, and systems analysis. In many cases, treatments are evaluated using a wait and see approach, where practitioners tell direct care providers to implement an intervention and hope for a positive outcome. Taking a no is good news approach to intervention is not particularly systematic and likely leads to the propagation of ineffective intervention practices. The current manuscript will briefly review information related to the use of functional assessment procedures and common intervention strategies for different functions of problem behavior. We will then discuss some of the barriers to effective treatment implementation, particularly issues related to staff/parent training and systems issues as they relate to evaluating the effectiveness of treatments Functional Assessment The purpose of a functional assessment is to determine the cause, or the function, of challenging behavior. There are three primary types of functional assessment: indirect models (e.g., interviews, rating scales), descriptive analysis (e.g., ABC data), and functional analysis (e.g., environmental manipulations). These procedures are used to determine the antecedents that trigger maladaptive behavior and the reinforcement contingencies that maintain the behavior. Operant behavior can be categorized as being mediated by social reinforcement or automatic reinforcement. Socially-mediated problem behavior can be divided into social positive and social negative reinforcement. …