Social Motivation Theory Research Articles

Diminished social reward anticipation in the broad autism phenotype as revealed by event-related brain potentials.

Diminished responsivity to reward incentives is a key contributor to the social-communication problems seen in autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). Social motivation theories suggest that individuals with ASD do not experience social interactions as rewarding, leading to negative consequences for the development of brain circuitry subserving social information. In this study, we examined neural responses to social and non-social reward anticipation in 35 typically developing young adults, examining modulation of reward sensitivity by level of autistic traits. Using an Event-related potential incentive-delay task incorporating novel, more ecologically valid forms of reward, higher expression of autistic traits was associated with an attenuated P3 response to the anticipation of social (simulated real-time video feedback from an observer), but not non-social (candy), rewards. Exploratory analyses revealed that this was unrelated to mentalizing ability. The P3 component reflects motivated attention to reward signals, suggesting attenuated motivation allocation specific to social incentives. The study extends prior findings of atypical reward anticipation in ASD, demonstrating that attenuated social reward responsiveness extends to autistic traits in the range of typical functioning. Results support the development of innovative paradigms for investigating social and non-social reward responsiveness. Insight into vulnerabilities in reward processing is critical for understanding social function in ASD.

Empirical study on continuance intentions towards E-Learning 2.0 systems

Although E-Learning 2.0 has played a significant role in training and development within the organisational environment, after an initial acceptance, its use is frequently discontinued. Prior studies offered insights into participation in E-Learning; however, there is limited research on continuance intention towards E-Learning 2.0 systems in organisational contexts. Furthermore, the most widely used research models, such as technology acceptance model (TAM), neglect the interactive social processes in E-Learning 2.0. Therefore, this study proposes a unified model integrating the TAM, the information system success model and social motivation theories to investigate continuance intentions towards E-Learning 2.0 in an organisational context. A sample of 284 participants from companies in China that have already implemented E-Learning 2.0 systems took part in this study. Structural equation modelling was conducted to test the research hypotheses. The results show that the unified model provides a more comprehensive understanding of the cognitive processes and behaviours related to this context: (1) perceived usefulness and attitude were critical to the continuance intention towards an E-Learning 2.0 system; (2) perceived usefulness was a significant mediator of the effects from perceived ease of use, information quality and social influence on continuance intention; (3) perceived ease of use, information quality and social influence were found to play important roles in predicting the continuance intention; (4) system quality played an important role in affecting the perceived ease of use; and (5) unexpectedly, social motivations had no significant effect on attitude.

Responsivity to familiar versus unfamiliar social reward in children with autism.

In autism spectrum disorders (ASD), social motivation theories suggest that the core social communication problems seen in children with ASD arise from diminished responsiveness to social reward. Although clinical and experimental data support these theories, the extent to which the reward deficit in ASD is unique for social rewards remains unclear. With the present investigation, we aimed to provide insight into the degree to which sociality as well as familiarity of reward incentives impact motivated goal-directed behavior in children with ASD. To do so, we directly compared the influence of familiar versus unfamiliar social reward relative to nonsocial, monetary reward in children with ASD relative to age- and IQ-matched typically developing controls (TDC) using a visual and auditory incentive go/nogo task with reward contingencies for successful response inhibitions. We found that children with ASD responded stronger to visual familiar and unfamiliar social reward as well as to nonsocial, monetary reward than TDC. While the present data are at odds with predictions made by social motivation theories, individual variations beyond clinical diagnosis, such as reward exposure across various social settings, help explain the pattern of results. The findings of this study stress the necessity for additional research on intra-individual as well as environmental factors that contribute to social reward responsiveness in individuals with ASD versus other neuropsychiatric disorders such as ADHD or conduct disorder.

Social Dominance Orientation, Right-Wing Authoritarianism, and Willingness to Help Addicted Individuals: The Role of Responsibility Judgments

We investigated how Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) and Right Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) were related to motivation to personally help addicted individuals and approval of public spending on addiction treatment. The study employs an attributional analysis based on Weiner’s theory of social motivation. SDO was associated with less approval of public spending on treatment and lower motivation to personally help. RWA was associated with less approval of public spending but exerted a direct positive effect on motivation to personally help. However, the latter effect was cancelled out by an indirect negative effect from an attributional process where addicted individuals were perceived as more responsible for their condition. An association between RWA and judgments of responsibility was further indicated in an investigation of positive vs. negative outcomes of addictions. RWA correlated with ratings of personal responsibility across the valence of outcomes, whereas SDO did not. In conclusion, the relation between RWA and (lack of) motivation to help is partly explained by a greater emphasis on personal responsibility, and the relation between SDO and (lack of) motivation to help is independent of responsibility judgments.

Single-Neuron Correlates of Atypical Face Processing in Autism

People with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) show abnormal processing of faces. A range of morphometric, histological, and neuroimaging studies suggest the hypothesis that this abnormality may be linked to the amygdala. We recorded data from single neurons within the amygdalae of two rare neurosurgical patients with ASD. While basic electrophysiological response parameters were normal, there were specific and striking abnormalities in how individual facial features drove neuronal response. Compared to control patients, a population of neurons in the two ASD patients responded significantly more to the mouth, but less to the eyes. Moreover, we found a second class of face-responsive neurons for which responses to faces appeared normal. The findings confirm the amygdala's pivotal role in abnormal face processing by people with ASD at the cellular level and suggest that dysfunction may be traced to a specific subpopulation of neurons with altered selectivity for the features of faces.

Social support from teachers mediates physical activity behavior change in children participating in the Fit-4-Fun intervention

BackgroundFew studies have examined the mediators of behavior change in successful school-based physical activity interventions. The aim of this study was to explore potential mediators of physical activity in the Fit-4-Fun program for primary school children.DesignGroup randomized controlled trial.MethodsFour primary schools were recruited in April, 2011 and randomized by school into intervention or control conditions. Participants included 213 children (mean age = 10.7 years ± 0.6; 52.2% female) with the treatment group (n = 118) completing the 8-week multi-component Fit-4-Fun program. Participants were assessed at baseline, 3- and 6-months. Physical activity was measured using Yamax SW700 pedometers (mean steps/day) and questionnaires were used to assess constructs from Social Cognitive Theory and Competence Motivation Theory. Hypothesized mediators measured included social support from peers, parents and teachers; physical activity self-efficacy (barrier and task); enjoyment; and perceived school physical environment. Mediation was assessed using Preacher and Hayes’ multiple mediation regression SPSS macro. Action theory (A), conceptual theory (B) and the significance of the product of coefficients (AB) are reported.ResultsThe intervention had a significant effect on physical activity (p<0.001). The action theory test results revealed significant treatment effects at 3-months for perceived school environment (A=0.28, p<0.001); and at 6-month follow-up for perceived school environment (A=0.058, p<0.001), teacher social support (A=0.54, p<0.05) and enjoyment (A=-0.23, p<0.05). The conceptual theory test revealed a significant relationship between changes in teacher social support and changes in physical activity at 6-month follow-up (B=828, P<0.05). Teacher social support was shown to have a significant mediating effect on physical activity (AB = 445, CI = 77-1068 steps, proportion= 13%), and perceived school environment approached significance (AB = 434, CI= -415 to 1507 steps, proportion= 13%).ConclusionsThe Fit-4-Fun program successfully targeted social support for physical activity provided by classroom teachers which contributed to improved physical activity in children. These results demonstrate that classroom teachers play a key role in influencing physical activity behavior outcomes in children.Trial Registration No: ACTRN12611000976987

To Share Knowledge or Not: Dependence on Knowledge-Sharing Satisfaction

Knowledge sharing behavior does not occur naturally and easily. In this study, I hypothesized that knowledge workers would be more likely to share knowledge if they were satisfied with knowledge-sharing behavior. This positive attitude was labeled knowledge-sharing satisfaction (KSS). Drawing upon social exchange theory and motivation theory, I examined the relationship between KSS and knowledge-sharing behavior. Using survey data from participants employed in research and development departments at knowledge-intensive high-technology companies in Taiwan, I demonstrated that satisfaction of the need for a friendly sharing environment and satisfaction of intrinsic and altruistic motivation are positively related to knowledge-sharing behavior. These findings contribute to researchers' understanding of the antecedents of employee knowledge-sharing behavior.

Mentalizing and motivation neural function during social interactions in autism spectrum disorders.

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) are characterized by core deficits in social functions. Two theories have been suggested to explain these deficits: mind-blindness theory posits impaired mentalizing processes (i.e. decreased ability for establishing a representation of others' state of mind), while social motivation theory proposes that diminished reward value for social information leads to reduced social attention, social interactions, and social learning. Mentalizing and motivation are integral to typical social interactions, and neuroimaging evidence points to independent brain networks that support these processes in healthy individuals. However, the simultaneous function of these networks has not been explored in individuals with ASDs. We used a social, interactive fMRI task, the Domino game, to explore mentalizing- and motivation-related brain activation during a well-defined interval where participants respond to rewards or punishments (i.e. motivation) and concurrently process information about their opponent's potential next actions (i.e. mentalizing). Thirteen individuals with high-functioning ASDs, ages 12–24, and 14 healthy controls played fMRI Domino games against a computer-opponent and separately, what they were led to believe was a human-opponent. Results showed that while individuals with ASDs understood the game rules and played similarly to controls, they showed diminished neural activity during the human-opponent runs only (i.e. in a social context) in bilateral middle temporal gyrus (MTG) during mentalizing and right Nucleus Accumbens (NAcc) during reward-related motivation (Pcluster < 0.05 FWE). Importantly, deficits were not observed in these areas when playing against a computer-opponent or in areas related to motor and visual processes. These results demonstrate that while MTG and NAcc, which are critical structures in the mentalizing and motivation networks, respectively, activate normally in a non-social context, they fail to respond in an otherwise identical social context in ASD compared to controls. We discuss implications to both the mind-blindness and social motivation theories of ASD and the importance of social context in research and treatment protocols.

Information privacy concerns, antecedents and privacy measure use in social networking sites: Evidence from Malaysia

The research aims at gaining insights into information privacy concerns, its antecedents and privacy measure use in social networking sites. The Social Cognitive, Protection Motivation theories and gender factor were used as a basis to develop and confirm a research model. Using a cross-sectional survey design and cluster sampling technique, four-hundred thirteen questionnaires were distributed to undergraduates at a public Malaysian university; three-hundred forty were included in analyses. Data was analyzed using structural equation modeling technique. Results suggest that in order of importance only perceived severity, self-efficacy, perceived vulnerability, and gender are antecedents of information privacy concerns with social networking sites; response efficacy and rewards were not significant antecedents contrary to many past findings in the literature that used Social Cognitive and Protection Motivation Theory as a theoretical basis. Information privacy concerns explain privacy measure use in social networking sites. The implications of these results and study limitations are discussed.

Social and monetary reward processing in autism spectrum disorders

BackgroundSocial motivation theory suggests that deficits in social reward processing underlie social impairments in autism spectrum disorders (ASD). However, the extent to which abnormalities in reward processing generalize to other classes of stimuli remains unresolved. The aim of the current study was to examine if reward processing abnormalities in ASD are specific to social stimuli or can be generalized to other classes of reward. Additionally, we sought to examine the results in the light of behavioral impairments in ASD.MethodsParticipants performed adapted versions of the social and monetary incentive delay tasks. Data from 21 unmedicated right-handed male participants with ASD and 21 age- and IQ-matched controls were analyzed using a factorial design to examine the blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) response during the anticipation and receipt of both reward types.ResultsBehaviorally, the ASD group showed less of a reduction in reaction time (RT) for rewarded compared to unrewarded trials than the control group. In terms of the fMRI results, there were no significant group differences in reward circuitry during reward anticipation. During the receipt of rewards, there was a significant interaction between group and reward type in the left dorsal striatum (DS). The ASD group showed reduced activity in the DS compared to controls for social rewards but not monetary rewards and decreased activation for social rewards compared to monetary rewards. Controls showed no significant difference between the two reward types. Increased activation in the DS during social reward processing was associated with faster response times for rewarded trials, compared to unrewarded trials, in both groups. This is in line with behavioral results indicating that the ASD group showed less of a reduction in RT for rewarded compared to unrewarded trials. Additionally, de-activation to social rewards was associated with increased repetitive behavior in ASD.ConclusionsIn line with social motivation theory, the ASD group showed reduced activation, compared to controls, during the receipt of social rewards in the DS. Groups did not differ significantly during the processing of monetary rewards. BOLD activation in the DS, during social reward processing, was associated with behavioral impairments in ASD.

A Factorial Validation of Knowledge-Sharing Motivation Construct

While there is increasingly strategic importance in knowledge, it is facing new challenges to manage knowledge effectively. The paper studies the motivational construct model for knowledge sharing from the perspective of content theories and social motivation theories. The data collected by using the questionnaire survey from a variety of industries was analyzed on the basis of interviews and pretest. The results of exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed the motivational construct model for knowledge sharing was comprised of existence motivation, relatedness motivation, growth motivation and norm motivation. The results extended the perspectives for knowledge sharing motivation and provided theoretical evidences for facilitating knowledge sharing behavior.

Helping Following Natural Disasters: A Social‐Motivational Analysis1

The present investigation explores how judgments of responsibility influence affective and helping reactions toward natural-disaster victims. Guided by Weiner's (1995, 2006) theory of social motivation, we hypothesized that judging victims responsible for a disaster would indirectly lead to low rates of helping. Two studies tested this hypothesis. In Study 1, a bogus earthquake was used to test experimentally the effects of responsibility judgments (low, high). In Study 2, we surveyed attitudes about the victims of Hurricane Katrina. Our results showed that Weiner's model was supported across studies. Responsibility judgments led to anger and sympathy, and sympathy led to helping intentions, which in turn led to helping behavior. Comparisons across studies and the relationship between helping intentions and behavior are discussed.

A Multilevel Investigation of the Motivational Mechanisms Underlying Knowledge Sharing and Performance

This study draws on three different, yet complementary, theories of motivation, which we combine in an interactive manner, to explain the mechanisms that underlie the exchange between knowledge providers and recipients and ultimately impact performance. More specifically, we use incentive, goal-setting-social cognitive, and social motivation theories to examine knowledge sharing within dyads and its influence on individual performance. One hundred and twenty participants functioning as interdependent manager dyads completed a strategic decision-making simulation. Hierarchical regression and random coefficient modeling techniques were used to test hypothesized relationships. Results demonstrated that the effect of group-oriented incentive systems on the knowledge provider was enhanced when more positive norms for knowledge sharing existed among dyad members. The recipient’s self-efficacy had a stronger relationship with performance goals when the recipient trusted the provider. Finally, self-set goals and knowledge sharing had both direct and interactive effects on individual performance. We argue that these findings constitute a useful advance in middle-range motivation (Landy and Becker 1987, Pinder 1984) theory pertaining to knowledge sharing and utilization.

Brand origin in an emerging market: perceptions of Indian consumers

PurposeThe study aims to examine the usefulness of the brand origin concept in shaping the perceptions of Indian consumers.Design/methodology/approachGuided by recent advance in social identity theory and social motivation theory, a dynamic iterative model of brand origin recognition is proposed. Six hypotheses were tested using a sample of 145 consumers from west of India. Using paired t‐test, average consumer preference of brand origin was analysed for different product categories. A factor analysis with varimax rotation for determining band images was also carried out.FindingsThe results demonstrated that most consumers can recognise the brand origin correctly but the power of recognition decreases when the brand has a long history of “localization”. Distinguished trajectories of consumer perceptions of foreign brands and domestics brands were projected, and this allowed one to extend existing country of origin (CO) research to brand of origin research.Practical implicationsThe results implied that brand origin is a useful concept for companies engaging in an emerging market such as India. But the changing nature of the concept requires careful steering and nurturing if companies want to attach a positive value to its brand via brand origin association.Originality/valueResearch into CO effect has been extensive. However, few studies examine empirically the effect of “brand origin” which is more appropriate in emerging market in today's increasingly competitive global environment. This paper is a first to explore the validity of the concept of brand origin in the Indian market.

The Needs of AIDS-Infected Individuals in Rural China

The purpose of this exploratory case study was to describe the needs and present the voices of 21 AIDS-infected individuals who contracted the disease through the selling of blood in rural China. Data sources included interviews, field notes, and letters. Three themes emerged: living in a vicious circle, awakening from the dead end, and escaping the vicious circle through education. Education emerged as an overarching theme and was identified as the catalyst that would either keep the families of those affected trapped in the vicious circle or rescue them from it. Findings are explained within the theoretical contexts of social capital, motivation theory, and Confucius's philosophy on education. The authors discuss implications for researchers, educators, relief workers, human service workers, policy makers, and human rights advocates. They conclude with suggestions for further study.

Attribution and Helping Behavior: Testing the Attribution-Affect-Help Judgment Model in a Saudi Sample

A review of the literature on Weiner's attributional theory indicates that the theory has not been tested in Arabic cultures. The present study examined the reactions of Saudi men toward a friend with AIDS, using Weiner's attributional theory of social motivation. A sample of 298 Saudi men read two different vignettes about a friend with AIDS, in which the cause of AIDS was manipulated. Then the assignment of responsibility, reactions of anger and pity, and participants' willingness to provide help were measured.

Attitudes towards the Euro by national identity and relative national status

The present study investigates the effect that the relative status of a nation in the European Monetary Union – in this case Austria – and national identity has on attitudes towards the Euro. Alternative assumptions deriving from social motivation theory and the common ingroup identity model are tested. The study results provide evidence in support of the social motivation theory: respondents who perceived Austria’s status as being lower than that of the other member states and who identified strongly with Austria also showed the strongest opposition to the Euro. Respondents who perceived Austria’s status as being equal or even higher than the status of other European states were favourable in their attitudes towards the Euro as a symbol of the union, and national identity had no main effect on their attitudes towards the Euro.

Web vs campus store? Why students buy textbooks online

This study proposes and tests several social and perceptual motivations for shopping online. Using online textbook purchasing as a model, we outline predictors of online purchasing based on motivation theories drawn from traditional online consumer motivation research, social motivation theory, social influence theory and uses and gratifications theory. Our research adds a social and perceptual dimension to much of the typical online motivation research that deals with availability and cost issues. Data were collected using a pencil‐and‐paper survey of 156 students from a large Northeastern university. Findings of this study indicated that previous online purchase, positive social environment, professor support, knowledge of online retailers, and perception that needs will be met online are all predictors of online textbook purchasing. Implications for advertisers, online textbook retailers, and e‐commerce, more generally, are discussed.

Individual differences in leisure satisfactions: an investigation of four theories of leisure motivation

Abstract The applicability of several theories of leisure motivation to a range of 36 activities typically undertaken by younger people has been investigated. The theories were Csikzentmihalyi's theory of flow (theory 1), Bandura's theory of self-efficacy (theory 2), Apter's theory of telic and paratelic activity (theory 3) and a general theory of social motivation (theory 4). Participants were 183 young men and women in secondary and tertiary education who completed self-report questionnaires containing scales for the frequency, enjoyment, purpose, social satisfaction, skill, ability and challenge which they associated with activities they had personally experienced. The balance between skill and challenge implied by theory 1 was found to be characteristic of all activities, whether or not they could be expected to generate flow. The data collected in the study provided little support for theory 2. It was possible to distinguish telic and paratelic activities according to theory 3 and to show that the latter were more enjoyable and less purposive. Although theory 4 was not relevant to solitary activities, it was still the most generally applicable and even appeared to account for most of the enjoyment derived from highly purposive activities, which were not otherwise greatly enjoyed.

CAUSAL LINKS AMONG DETERMINANTS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN CHILDREN: A STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODEL

1035 Numerous studies have examined the determinants of physical activity in children but few studies have tested causal links among the various determinants. The purpose of this study was to test a model of activity promotion developed specifically for children. The model included constructs from social cognitive theory and competence motivation theory but specified links between various determinants based on extant research with children. To test the model, 673 3rd -6th grade children (340 boys and 333 girls) from 3 schools and varying ethnic backgrounds completed surveys assessing each component of the model. Physical activity (PA) was assessed with the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Children (Crocker et al, 1996). Determinants were assessed with scales from the Child and Youth Physical Self-Perception Profile (Eklund et al., 1997), the Children's Attraction to Physical Activity (CAPA) scale (Brustad, 1993) and additional scales addressing parental reinforcement and access to facilities, equipment, and programs. Structural equation modeling was performed to examine the utility of the model. With small, theoretically sound modifications based on the Lagrange multiplier and Wald tests, the model provided a good fit to the data [CFI=.97; NFI =.94, NNFI =.96 and chi-square = 143 (df=80)]. Overall, the model predicted 43% of the variance in PA. Of particular note is the fact that parental reinforcement had both direct and indirect (through perceptions of competence) effects on a child's interest and participation in PA. This model offers promise for additional research on the promotion of PA in children.