Social Learning Abilities Research Articles

Social-learning abilities of wild vervet monkeys in a two-step task artificial fruit experiment

Social learning is the basis for the formation of traditions in both human and nonhuman animals. Field observations and experiments provide evidence for the existence of traditions in animals but they do not address the underlying social-learning mechanisms. We used an established laboratory experimental paradigm, the artificial fruit design, to test for copying of a sequence of actions and local enhancement in six groups of wild vervet monkeys, Chlorocebus aethiops. We introduced a two-step task where models had to remove a bar to untie a rope that blocked a single door of a box. The models were high-ranking individuals that monopolized the box early on and discovered by trial and error how to open it. We obtained successful models in three groups, while the other three groups acted as controls. After 20 successful demonstrations, we tested subjects with a box that had a rope in the same position but the rope was not functional. Under these conditions, sequential copying of the two-step opening did not occur. Only individuals that were exposed to models were likely to touch the bar if door opening was not immediately successful, providing evidence for local enhancement. When we presented the boxes with the functional rope, we found no effect of having been exposed to a model on the probability that subjects solved the task. We conclude that the social-learning abilities of wild vervet monkeys are relatively limited and discuss potential problems concerning the technical difficulty of the task.

Social Learning in the Caracara Chimango,Milvago chimango(Aves: Falconiformes): an Age Comparison

AbstractMilvago chimangois a gregarious raptor showing great ecological plasticity. Their ability to explore new resources has allowed them to survive in areas with increasing human modification. In this study, we evaluated the social learning ability in wild‐caught individuals ofM. chimango. In particular, we tested whether an ‘observer’ individual could improve the acquisition of a novel behaviour by watching a ‘demonstrator,’ and we examined the effects of age of both observers and demonstrators on social learning. We measured the ability of 18 observers to open an opaque Plexiglas box containing food, and we compared their performance to that of 10 control birds who did not watch a demonstrator solve the task. Prior to watching a demonstrator, only two of the observers and two of the control birds were able to open the box. After watching a demonstrator, 67% of observers were able to open the box, outperforming control birds in speed and success. Juvenile observers were more successful and faster than adults at contacting and opening the box. The age of the demonstrator did not influence the observers’ likelihood of success. These results showed thatM. chimangoare able to learn a box‐opening task with a hidden food reward by observing the behaviour of a conspecific and that this behaviour persisted over several days. Social learning ability inM. chimangomight allow certain behavioural patterns, such as those related to novel resource acquisition in modified environments, to be socially transmitted among individuals in a population.

Schooling and learning: early social environment predicts social learning ability in the guppy, Poecilia reticulata

Social behaviour is extremely widespread in the animal kingdom and has a heritable component in many species. However, the degree to which social behaviour is phenotypically plastic and influenced by conditions individuals experience during early ontogeny is less well understood. Using the guppy as a model species, we examined the importance of early social environment upon the development of a number of social behaviours. We reared guppies at relatively low and high conspecific densities to investigate how early experience impacted shoaling behaviour and social learning ability in this species. Guppies reared at low densities had a significantly higher shoaling tendency than guppies reared at higher densities. Furthermore, individuals reared at low densities located a food resource more often and quicker than individuals reared at high densities in a foraging maze trial with trained demonstrators. After 8 consecutive days of maze trials we removed the demonstrators to investigate social learning skills. Guppies reared at low densities located food faster alone than guppies reared at high densities, implying that they were more adept at socially learning foraging information. This intriguing relationship between early social environment and the development of shoaling behaviour and social learning skills may have considerable implications for captive breeding programs in conservation and aquaculture.

The social life of corvids

The social life of corvids

Arbeitstherapie bei schizophrenen Patienten: Keine oder doch differenzielle Effekte?

In a previous study the effectiveness of vocational therapy was evaluated using the Osnabrück Profile of Working Abilities (O-AFP). No or only minor effects were detected. The goal of this reanalysis is to identify distinct responder groups. Hierarchical cluster analysis of O-AFP-scores before and after treatment, anovas, t-statistics as well as regression and discriminant analyses were applied to specify the clusters. For each of the O-AFP-scales (Learning Ability, Social Communication Ability, Adaptation) three subgroups different in level and slope of abilities could be identified. Improvements with medium to high effect sizes were detected for Social Communication Ability (34 %) and Learning Ability (14 % of the patients), deterioration was found in 30 % of the patients for Adaptation. Subgroups could be described with the help of symptomatology. Further variables and subgroup membership could be predicted above chance by discriminant and regression analysis. Targeted and more appropriate design of vocational therapy seems necessary.

The relation between social rank, neophobia and individual learning in starlings

Researchers with diverse interests in topics ranging from the formation of dominance hierarchies and social intelligence to animal personalities have predicted specific, and often conflicting, relations between social rank, neophobia and learning ability. We investigated the relations between these variables in captive groups of wild-caught starlings, Sturnus vulgaris, adopting a multidimensional approach to social rank and neophobia. Both agonistic and competitive rank orders were determined for each group and we tested individuals in the absence of their groupmates for object neophobia, latency to feed in a novel environment and performance on an extractive foraging task. In each starling group, the fastest learners occupied the highest competitive ranks, supporting the hypothesis that cognitive ability is positively correlated with social dominance. Competitive rank orders, however, did not correlate significantly with agonistic rank orders. Situation-specific foraging neophobia was suggested: individuals showed consistency in their latencies to feed near a variety of novel objects, but no significant correlation was found between this measure of object neophobia and latency to feed in a novel environment. Starlings fastest to feed in the novel environment were fastest in solving the foraging task. We discuss the implications of these findings for researchers studying hierarchy formation in animal groups, social intelligence and animal personalities.

A note on social dominance and learning ability in the domestic chicken ( Gallus gallus)

Relatively little is known about the relationship between social behavior and specific cognitive abilities of the chicken. It is uncertain whether dominant birds have a cognitive advantage over subordinate birds that might facilitate their superior position in the social hierarchy. Likewise, it is unknown whether subordinate birds compete successfully with higher ranking birds because their cognitive capacities compensate for physical deficits. In this study, the relationship between the chicken's position in the dominance hierarchy and its performance on a cognitive task was explored. Ten pairs of New Hampshire domestic roosters ( Gallus gallus) were observed to determine dominance or subordinance within dyads. All birds were then trained and tested on a visual discrimination learning task. Discriminative stimuli were orange and green plastic discs. Correct stimuli (orange or green) were randomly assigned to birds. Placement of the discs (left or right of center) was also randomly assigned and counterbalanced to avoid a side bias. Birds were rewarded with food for pecking at the correct disc. Criterion for task completion was 80% correct responses on three consecutive test sessions or 86% correct on two consecutive sessions. All subjects met the test criterion. The number of trials to criterion was compared between dominant and subordinate birds using a paired t-test. No difference was found in performance between dominant and subordinate birds ( p > 0.05) suggesting that in chickens, ability to learn a novel visual discrimination task is not well correlated with rank. Additional studies, particularly using different learning paradigms, are needed to confirm these results.

Social learning and social abilities of first-grade elementary pupils in Greece: the importance of informal models of evaluation

The aim of this research is to examine how social learning is connected to the acquisition of knowledge and abilities. One hundred and nineteen ‘A’ grade students (60 boys and 59 girls) attending public primary school participated. The collection of data was carried out according to: (1) the ‘Athina’ Test (AT) and (2) teachers' evaluation. The students were divided into four groups according to the level of their social learning. A comparison between all the results of the AT evaluation and the teachers' evaluation is made. The results demonstrate a correlation between social learning and academic achievements.

The pet dogs ability for learning from a human demonstrator in a detour task is independent from the breed and age

There are many indications and much practical knowledge about the different tasks which various breeds of dogs are selected for. Correspondingly these different breeds are known to possess different physical and mental abilities. We hypothesized that commonly kept breeds will show differences in their problem solving ability in a detour task around a V-shaped fence, and also, that breed differences will affect their learning ability from a human demonstrator, who demonstrates a detour around the fence. Subjects were recruited in Hungarian pet dog schools. We compared the results of the 10 most common breeds in our sample when they were tested in the detour task without human demonstration. There was no significant difference between the latencies of detour, however, there was a trend that German Shepherd dogs were the quickest and Giant Schnauzers were the slowest in this test. For testing the social learning ability of dogs we formed three breed groups (“utility”, “shepherd” and “hunting”). There were no significant differences between these, all the breed groups learned equally well from the human demonstrator. However, we found that dogs belonging to the “shepherd” group looked back more frequently to their owner than the dogs in the “hunting” group. Further, we have found that the age of pet dogs did not affect their social learning ability in the detour task. Our results showed that the pet status of a dog has probably a stronger effect on its cognitive performance and human related behaviour than its age or breed. These results emphasize that socialization and common activities with the dog might overcome the possible breed differences, if we give the dogs common problem solving, or social learning tasks.

Interplay Between Environmental and Genetic Factors in Temperament/Personality Traits in Horses (Equus caballus).

The aim of the present study was to broach the question of the relative influence of different genetic and environmental factors on different temperament/personality traits of horses (Equus caballus). The researchers submitted 702 horses to standardized experimental tests and investigated 9 factors, either genetic or environmental. Genetic factors, such as sire or breed, seemed to influence more neophobic reactions, whereas environmental factors, such as the type of work, seemed to play a more dominant role in reactions to social separation or learning abilities. Additive effects were evident, showing how environmental factors may modulate behavioral traits. This study constitutes a first step toward understanding the relative weights of genetic factors and how the environment may intervene in determining individual behavioral characteristics.

Why there is better evidence for culture in fish than chimpanzees

Fish have comparatively small brains and are not renowned for their intelligence. Yet a series of laboratory experiments on the guppy reveals that they can be surprisingly good at learning from each other, and that social learning processes can mediate behavioural traditions analogous to the tool using traditions of different populations of chimpanzees. Transmission chain experiments have established that arbitrary and even maladaptive information can be socially transmitted among shoals of fish. Studies of behavioural innovation in guppies are strikingly consistent with findings of equivalent studies in primates. There are strong sex differences in innovatory tendencies and social learning abilities in guppies, which also parallel observations of primates. These studies suggest that the adage ‘necessity is the mother of invention’ may be a characteristic feature of animal innovation. When considered in combination with the findings of transfer experiments carried out on natural populations of fish, it becomes apparent that fish are an excellent model system for studies of animal social learning and culture.

Customs and cultures in animals and humans

Anthropologists have long considered culture to be a defining attribute of humanity. Over the last decade, however, primatologists have repeatedly asserted that great apes also possess culture. Whether or not great apes or other animals pass the `culture test' depends on how one defines culture. This article uses the terms `custom' and `symbolic culture' to distinguish socially transmitted behavioral patterns and symbolic systems of belief, each of which is sometimes called culture. Information presented here indicates that social customs are widespread among mammals. It remains questionable, however, whether any non-human animals possess symbolic cultures. Symbolism, teaching, imitation, speech, and gesture demand brain-size mediated neurological capacities possessed by few non-human species. These include fine motor skills and the ability to construct variable, complex motor acts, concepts, and objects from multiple components. Humans exceed all other animals in these mental constructional skills and, hence, in many abilities that rely upon them including language, making complex tools, art, dance, mime, teaching and imitation. These interacting capacities enhance our social learning abilities and also allow us to create and transmit symbolic systems of belief. Symbolic cultures, thus, may be creations of social beings equipped with prerequisite motor and mental capacities, and they may reflect activities of multiple neurological areas as opposed to being a discrete human trait mediated by a specific, genetically-determined neural module. To the extent that symbolic cultures are creations, all mental capacities essential for culture may have been present in ancestral humans prior to the appearance of actual evidence of culture in the archaeological record.

Multimedia support for couples in infertility treatment

Objective: The goal of study was to develop and test the acceptance and feasibility of a demonstration version of a CD-ROM support program called Exploring Infertility: An Interactive Support Program for Couples and Individuals. The program is informed by social learning theory and ability for multimedia to personalize an educational experience. The goal is to help reduce anticipatory distress, facilitate adaptive coping and appropriate self-care, and empower couples to become informed consumers of infertility treatment. The program seeks to overcome barriers of limited local access to support services, stigma in seeking professional support, and time demands that can be significant problems for many infertility patients.

Culture in whales and dolphins.

Studies of animal culture have not normally included a consideration of cetaceans. However, with several long-term field studies now maturing, this situation should change. Animal culture is generally studied by either investigating transmission mechanisms experimentally, or observing patterns of behavioural variation in wild populations that cannot be explained by either genetic or environmental factors. Taking this second, ethnographic, approach, there is good evidence for cultural transmission in several cetacean species. However, only the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops) has been shown experimentally to possess sophisticated social learning abilities, including vocal and motor imitation; other species have not been studied. There is observational evidence for imitation and teaching in killer whales. For cetaceans and other large, wide-ranging animals, excessive reliance on experimental data for evidence of culture is not productive; we favour the ethnographic approach. The complex and stable vocal and behavioural cultures of sympatric groups of killer whales (Orcinus orca) appear to have no parallel outside humans, and represent an independent evolution of cultural faculties. The wide movements of cetaceans, the greater variability of the marine environment over large temporal scales relative to that on land, and the stable matrilineal social groups of some species are potentially important factors in the evolution of cetacean culture. There have been suggestions of gene-culture coevolution in cetaceans, and culture may be implicated in some unusual behavioural and life-history traits of whales and dolphins. We hope to stimulate discussion and research on culture in these animals.

Cetacean culture: Still afloat after the first naval engagement of the culture wars

Although the majority of commentators implicitly or explicitly accept that field data allow us to ascribe culture to whales, dolphins, and other nonhumans, there is no consensus. While we define culture as information or behaviour shared by a population or subpopulation which is acquired from conspecifics through some form of social learning, some commentators suggest restricting this by requiring imitation/teaching, human analogy, adaptiveness, stability across generations, progressive evolution (ratchetting), or specific functions. Such restrictions fall down because they either preclude the attribution of culture to nonhumans using currently available methods, or exclude parts of human culture. The evidence for cetacean culture is strong in some cases, but weak in others. The commentaries provide important information on the social learning abilities of bottlenose dolphins and some interesting speculation about the evolution of cetacean cultures and differences between the cultures of different taxa. We maintain that some attributes of cetacean culture are currently unknown outside humans. While experimental studies, both in the laboratory and in the wild, have an important role in the study of culture in whales and dolphins (for instance in determining whether dolphins have a Theory-of-Mind), the real treasures will be uncovered by long-term observational studies at sea using new approaches and technologies.

Sociality and social learning in two species of corvids: the pinyon jay (Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus) and the Clark's nutcracker (Nucifraga columbiana).

The hypothesis that social learning is an adaptive specialization for social living predicts that social species should learn better socially than they do individually, but that nonsocial species should not exhibit a similar enhancement of performance under social learning conditions. The authors compared individual and social learning abilities in 2 corvid species: the highly social pinyon jay (Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus) and the less social Clark's nutcracker (Nucifraga columbiana). The birds were tested on 2 different tasks under individual and social learning conditions. Half learned a motor task individually and a discrimination task socially; the other half learned the motor task socially and the discrimination task individually. Pinyon jays learned faster socially than they did individually, but nutcrackers performed equally well under both learning conditions. Results support the hypothesis that social learning is an adaptive specialization for social living in pinyon jays.

Child impairment and parent/infant communication.

This paper sets out to explore the potential effects of child impairment upon the development of parent/infant interaction patterns. Interaction is seen as an important determinant of the level of social and material experience to which a child is likely to be exposed. It follows that a reduction or negative alteration of interaction patterns will have important experiential consequences and thence an effect upon cognitive development, social and emotional skills and learning ability. It is shown that the development of interactions is dependent upon stimulation of the mother by the infant and it is postulated that this stimulation or signalling can be potentially inhibited by factors which are inherent in the impairing condition and by affective and cognitive factors projected onto the child by parents. Implications for treatment are considered with emphasis placed upon a need for counselling and guidance.

Cultural transmission without imitation: Milk bottle opening by birds

Social learning is widespread across the animal kingdom and used by individuals to acquire adaptive behaviour across a range of contexts, from mate choice to migration. However, while multiple studies have demonstrated the presence of social learning in different species across several taxa, less attention has been paid to explaining variation in this phenomenon between populations or individuals. Theoretical modelling has suggested age should be important, with social learning most adaptive during the juvenile phase. Yet, empirical studies testing the interaction between age and social learning are equivocal and scattered in the literature. Accordingly, we present here what we believe to be the first meta-analytical review of this body of work. Collating 57 experimental studies that tested social learning in a foraging context, we conducted a two-fold analysis. First, we examined whether learning success or rates were correlated with five possible variables: phylogeny, dispersal system, age at first reproduction (a conservative measure of extended juvenile periods), type of task or testing condition (captive individuals, wild individuals or wild individuals brought into captivity for testing). Second, we tested for interactions between age and these variables (28 studies). Our results did not support a clear direct relationship between age and social learning abilities. However, life history factors indirectly related to age (age at first reproduction and dispersal system) affected social learning propensity. Finally, social learning success was also correlated with factors related to the experiment itself (captive or wild origin of the animals and the type of task used to assess social learning).

The Turriff Family of Fetterangus: Society, Learning, Creation and Recreation of Traditional Song

Among the justly admired traditional singers of North-east Scotland, the Turriff family has received perhaps less attention than it deserves from students of folk song. Kenneth Goldstein recorded a considerable amount of material, much of it song, from this family in 1959 and 1960, but little has so far appeared in print or disc. A more recent investigation of the song tradition within the family and the relationship of that tradition to social relations, learning, and creative abilities, was undertaken between October 1972 and July 1973 by Hamish Henderson and the writer.