Social Gender Norms Research Articles

Let the girls learn! It is not only about math … it's about gender social norms

Using PISA test scores from 11,527 second-generation immigrants coming from 35 different countries of ancestry and living in 9 host countries, we find that the positive effects of country-of-ancestry gender social norms on girls’ math test scores relative to those of boys expand to other subjects (namely reading and science). We further find that gender norms shaped by beliefs on women's political empowerment and economic opportunity affect the gender gaps in test scores in general. Interestingly, gender norms do not seem to particularly influence math-related stereotypes, but instead, preferences for math. Finally, the evidence indicates that these findings are driven by cognitive skills, suggesting that social gender norms affect parent's expectations on girls’ academic knowledge relative to that of boys, but not on other attributes for success—such as non-cognitive skills. Taken together, our results highlight the relevance of general (as opposed to math-specific) gender stereotypes on the math gender gap.

Women’s school-to-work transition in the Arab mediterranean countries (AMC)

In compliance with SAHWA proposal guideline, and based on the data from the Ethnographic fieldwork, this scientific paper looks into the status of women’s school-to-work transition in Arab Mediterranean Countries (AMC). Fresh female graduates, from poor backgrounds face the most challenges when seeking to access the labour market. They have difficulties due to social gender norms in the society, institutional decline in the educational system, and lack of social connections. Short-term solutions include introducing career guidance and job entry skills programs. Several case studies of successful school-to-work transition initiatives are highlighted. These initiatives seek to abridge the social gap for the young women by providing fair chances in applying for jobs opportunities via good communication skills that can help them to build proper social connections.

Content Validity of the Abbreviated Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (A‐WEAI) in Ethiopia: A Mixed Methods Approach

The conceptual pathway between agriculture and nutrition through the vehicle of women's empowerment has garnered much attention as a means to reducing global malnutrition. Until recently, understanding this complex pathway was particularly challenging given that there was no widely accepted approach to measuring women's empowerment. In 2012, Feed the Future launched the Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI), which measures the empowerment, inclusion and agency of women within the agricultural sector. This research study assessed the internal validity of the Abbreviated Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (A‐WEAI), a second iteration of the WEAI, within the context of Ethiopian smallholder farming households. Through three phases of data collection, this study identified salient aspects of Ethiopian culture and social gender norms that influence the reliability and internal validity of the A‐WEAI as an indicator of Ethiopian women's empowerment. The first phase entailed 24 focus groups, which collected qualitative data on Ethiopian agricultural households' gender norms and understanding of the term ‘women's empowerment’. Within the second phase, 300 households responded to the quantitative A‐WEAI survey. These results were used to test content validity through principal component analysis and internal reliability through Cronbach's alpha. The last phase of data collection further assessed content validity through an expert panel survey that was used to construct a Content Validity Index (CVI). Results indicate that there are distinct Ethiopian gender norms in relation to agricultural engagement. Women most commonly defined ‘empowerment’ to mean ‘decision‐making’ and cited relationships to others (spouses, children, extended family, etc) as a strong influence on perceived levels of empowerment. To the best of our knowledge, neither the WEAI nor A‐WEAI has been assessed for content validity in any setting. Results from this study hold great significance as they contribute to understanding, for the first time, the content validity of the scale in general. This study also provides insights into the A‐WEAI's functioning in Ethiopia. Future research is needed to identify specific appropriate changes to the A‐WEAI such that women's empowerment is measured in an accurate, valid (both internally and externally) and reliable manner and thus useful in guiding policy.Support or Funding InformationThis research work was made possible by the support of the American people through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) under Agreement No. AID‐663‐A‐11‐000‐17. The contents of this document are the sole responsibility of the researcher & do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government.

Let the Girls Learn! I it is Not Only About Math... It’S About Gender Social Norm

Using PISA test scores from 11,527 second-generation immigrants coming from 35 different countries of ancestry and living in 9 host countries, we find that the positive effects of country-of-ancestry gender social norms on girls' math test scores relative to those of boys: (1) expand to other subjects (namely reading and science); (2) are shaped by beliefs on women's political empowerment and economic opportunity; and (3) are driven by parents' influencing their children's (especially their girls') preferences. Our evidence further suggest that these findings are driven by cognitive skills, suggesting that social gender norms affect parent's expectations on girls' academic knowledge relative to that of boys, but not on other attributes for success--such as non-cognitive skills. Taken together, our results highlight the relevance of general (as opposed to math-specific) gender stereotypes on the math gender gap, and suggest that parents' gender social norms shape youth's test scores by transmitting preferences for cognitive skills.

Erasing alterity: Gendered characterisation in the different versions of Vita Anastasiae

Despite official declarations against cross-dressing in the fourth century, eleven uitae that praise the ascetic superiority of cross-dressing female saints were produced in late antiquity. Engaging in a practice that was explicitly forbidden by numerous ecclesiastical synods, women who cross-dressed were often labelled as 'others' because they resisted social expectations and gender norms and trespassed into the masculine realms of independence and holiness. This study examines the gendered representation of one of these cross-dressing female saints named Anastasia. It traces her gendered representation across three versions of her Greek uita, two of which are preserved in Vita Danielis and one in the Greek 'Menaion'. These texts are fascinating because of the differing degrees to which they tolerate and promote the gender ambiguity of the heroine. While the former versions allow Anastasia a degree of gender ambiguity, the 'Menaion' version suppresses much of this ambiguity. I will demonstrate this by exploring three aspects of Anastasia's gendered characterisation in the texts: 1) designations for her throughout each narrative; 2) her identification as a eunuch; and 3) the degree of agency attributed to her. I conclude by offering some thoughts about how alterity theory can help account for these different representations, which I argue are responses to the perceived alterity of the saint.

Investigating the Institutional Norms and Values of the Productivity Commission: The 2011 and 2015 Childcare Inquiries

The Productivity Commission (PC) has a mandate to provide independent advice to government that promotes community wellbeing. Whilst it plays a significant role in social and economic reform, the underlying institutional values and norms of the PC that shape its advice have not been examined. This paper examines policy problematisations (Bacchi 2009, 2012) across two PC ‘inquiries’ into childcare (2011, 2015) between Labor and Coalition governments, and the advice provided by the PC. In doing so, this research demonstrates that PC recommendations are imbued with economic values that are highly institutionalised. These values give preference to targeted social welfare and traditional gender norms, despite current evidence suggesting alternative approaches would have better social and long‐term economic outcomes. Our findings raise questions over the conflict between the traditional economic values of the PC and providing social policy advice that reflects best practice, indicating that further investigation into the PC is urgently needed.

The Link Between Community-Based Violence and Intimate Partner Violence: the Effect of Crime and Male Aggression on Intimate Partner Violence Against Women.

Both intimate partner violence (IPV) and community violence are prevalent globally, and each is associated with serious health consequences. However, little is known about their potential links or the possible benefits of coordinated prevention strategies. Using aggregated data on community violence from the São Paulo State Security Department (INFOCRIM) merged with WHO multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence data, random intercept models were created to assess the effect of crime on women’s probability of experiencing IPV. The association between IPV and male aggression (measured by women’s reports of their partner’s fights with other men) was examined using logistic regression models. We found little variation in the likelihood of male IPV perpetration related to neighborhood crime level but did find an increased likelihood of IPV experiences among women whose partners were involved in male-to-male violence. Emerging evidence on violence prevention has suggested some promising avenues for primary prevention that address common risk factors for both perpetration of IPV and male interpersonal violence. Strategies such as early identification and effective treatment of emotional disorders, alcohol abuse prevention and treatment, complex community-based interventions to change gender social norms and social marketing campaigns designed to modify social and cultural norms that support violence may work to prevent simultaneously male-on-male aggression and IPV. Future evaluations of these prevention strategies should simultaneously assess the impact of interventions on IPV and male interpersonal aggression.

Gender perspectives: Relationships between the genders in the professional field and in the household

In the twenty first century we can freely talk about gender equality in Bulgaria in comparison to other countries in which there is gender discrimination. In modern European societies every woman has the right to education and free choice as provided by law. But is that really true or is there hidden gender discrimination? Do we actually realize what equality means or do we unconsciously accept stereotypes that limit our opportunities? These are the main questions that the present paper seeks to explore. Nowadays women can have a career, but every woman is silently pressured by social gender norms, opinions and stereotypes. Among everything that a modern woman has to deal with, she must also be a housekeeper. Comparing our own survey results with other studies, the paper concludes that in present days, time spent in domestic work increases, compared to the past, and there are various reasons for that. However, women are starting to share their household activities with their partners. Thereby, the roles of men and women in the family are becoming more equivalent.

Role of community-level factors across the treatment cascade: a critical review.

Addressing community-level factors (CLFs) is integral to the ongoing effort to design multilevel, effective, and sustainable interventions to address each element of the HIV/AIDS treatment cascade. This review, the first critical review of this topic, identified 100 articles that (1) assessed CLFs in relation to the HIV/AIDS treatment cascade, (2) had been peer-reviewed, and (3) were based on studies conducted in low- or middle-income countries. Social support and social networks, cultural norms, gender norms, and stigma were the key CLFs associated with treatment and care. This extensive review found only 5 evaluations of interventions designed to affect CLFs, reflecting a major gap in the literature. All were communication interventions designed to create a more positive environment for HIV testing and access to treatment and care, thus pointing to some of the potential extraindividual effects of communication interventions. The qualitative data are rich and vital for understanding the context; yet, more quantitative analysis to provide evidence regarding the distribution of these factors is essential, as only 19 of the studies were quantitative. There is a pressing need to (1) collect community-level data, (2) validate social and gender norm scales, and (3) better use available data regarding social norms, gender norms, and other CLFs. These data could be aggregated at the cluster, neighborhood, or community levels and incorporated into multilevel analysis to help clarify the pathways to enhanced outcomes across the treatment cascade and thereby mitigate HIV sequelae.

Material Feminist Practices in a Body Politics Seminar

© 2015 by the board of trustees of the university of ill inois In these teaching notes, I want to focus on two course projects in which students apply materialist feminist practices within a capstone women’s studies seminar entitled Body Politics. Undertaking these projects, students become more critically aware of gendered materialities that they had previously taken for granted as they deconstruct material aspects of our social environment that they find oppressive. Students also increase confidence in their power to modify certain oppressive aspects of our material world. Perhaps most importantly, the students enjoy these exercises and find them meaningful and transformative. I teach women’s studies courses at a small Franciscan liberal arts college, where conservative Catholic social norms and traditional gender norms prevail. Even many of our more politicized and activist students do not question the normative gendering of bodies and behaviors. I designed the capstone women’s studies seminar around the topic of Body Politics to encourage the students to engage the conservative ideologies and policies that condition female embodiment on campus. Additionally, I focus on female body issues because although my college’s emphasis on Catholic service for the less fortunate does cultivate student investment in the betterment of the community, it also often discourages women students from focusing on their own experiences of gender oppression: the traditional Catholic gender system defines a good woman as one who serves others and advocates for others, not herself. By addressing female corporeal experience, I encourage students to speak out for themselves, as themselves, and to become more aware of how embodiment and gendering pervade their lives. While most of the students who complete the women’s studies minor and who take this capstone course are cisgender, heterosexual women, lesbians, transmen, and gay and straight men also pursue the minor and take this class, and I encourage all students to bring their own social positions and perspectives to bear on our study of gendered embodiment. My curricular focus parallels a feminist turn toward materiality/corporeality in the twenty-first century. Published in 2008, the anthology Material Feminisms, edited by Stacy Alaimo and Susan Hekman, brings together a range of feminist scholars whose work focuses on the corporeality of the female body and its co-constitution or Material Feminist Practices in a Body Politics Seminar

Social Determinants of Self-Reported Health in Women and Men: Understanding the Role of Gender in Population Health

BackgroundWomen and men share similar health challenges yet women report poorer health. The study investigates the social determinants of self-reported health in women and men, and male-female differences in health.MethodsData on 103154 men and 125728 women were analysed from 57 countries in the World Health Survey 2002–2004. Item Response Theory was used to construct a composite measure of health. Associations between health and determinants were assessed using multivariate linear regression. Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition partitioned the inequality in health between women and men into an “explained" component that arises because men and women differ in social and economic characteristics, and an “unexplained" component due to the differential effects of these characteristics. Decomposition was repeated for 18 countries in the World Health Organization (WHO) African region and 19 countries in the WHO European region.ResultsWomen's health was significantly lower than men's. Health was associated with education, household economic status, employment, and marital status after controlling for age. In the pooled analysis decomposition showed that 30% of the inequality was “explained", of which almost 75% came from employment, education, marital status. The differential effects of being in paid employment increased the inequality. When countries in Africa and Europe were compared, the “explained" component (31% and 39% respectively) was largely attributed to the social determinants in the African countries and to women's longevity in the European countries. Being in paid employment had a greater positive effect on the health of males in both regions.ConclusionsWays in which age and the social determinants contribute to the poorer health status of women compared with men varies between groups of countries. This study highlights the need for action to address social structures, institutional discrimination and harmful gender norms and roles that differently influence health with ageing.

Styles de vie citadins, réinvention des féminités. Une sociologie politique de l'accès aux espaces publics des jeunes Saoudiennes à Riyad

This article is the outline of a PhD dissertation that dealt with young Saudi women's access to public spaces in Riyadh. Based on ethnographic fieldwork, this research shows how young Saudi women, whose mobility and activities are limited by multiple constraints, invent mobile lifestyles through their access to four types of spaces : a women-only university campus, workplaces, shopping malls and religious spaces. The combination of gender and public spaces is the thread of the demonstration. The first part describes the emergence of public spaces accessible to women in the capital, from gender segregation to "reform". The second part shows who, among Saudi women, has access to these spaces and how this access is negotiated. The third part analyses transforming social hierarchies and gender norms in these new spaces. This work finally explores the political and social implications of the increasing visibility, in the city, of professional and consumerist lifestyles that are adopted by Saudi women.

Woolf's Feminist Aesthetics: On the Political and Artistic Practice in A Room of One's Own

An instant bestseller since its first publication on 24 October 1929, and reviewed by Rebecca West as ‘an uncompromising piece of feminist propaganda’,1 A Room of One's Own, despite the many contro...

Childhood sexual abuse and adult sexual health among indigenous Kanak women and non-Kanak women of New Caledonia

Objectives Few studies have addressed the long-term consequences of adverse childhood experiences among women in Oceania, in particular among indigenous women. This paper aims to report prevalences of childhood sexual abuse (CSA) and to asses the negative sexual health consequences in adulthood by comparing indigenous Kanak to non-Kanak women in New Caledonia. Methods Data come from a population survey on violence against women and health. Face-to-face interviews were conducted in 2002–2003 with adult women randomly selected from the electoral list. Separate models for Kanak ( n = 329) and non-Kanak women ( n = 426) were performed. Regression models adjusted for relevant socio-demographics factors were conducted to estimate the odds ratios for the associations between childhood sexual abuse and adult sexual health outcomes. Results A non-significant difference between Kanak (11.8%) and non-Kanak women (14.4%) was found for the prevalence of CSA. Among Kanak women, CSA increases the risk of sexually transmitted infections, of non-desired sexual intercourse with an intimate partner and of experience of adult sexual violence. However, use of modern contraception as an adult was more frequent among CSA Kanak victims, as compared to other Kanak women. Among non-Kanak women, only abortion appeared significantly associated with CSA. Conclusions and Practice implications The findings show that in all ethnic communities of New Caledonia, a history of child sexual abuse is not rare among women. They also shed light on the long-term consequences of CSA, suggesting that the effect of CSA may differ according to ethnic membership and subsequent social stratification and gender norms. Efforts to break the silence around violence against girls and establish a stronger foundation are required in New Caledonia. Prevention programs on violence against women and sexual health that take into account the cultural and social heterogeneity are needed.

Gender, sex, and HIV: how well are we addressing the imbalance?

Heightened interest in sex and gender differences in HIV warrant a review of the status of current understanding of their determinants and progress in addressing them. The proportion of women among people living with HIV continues to increase in most countries; however, women are proportionately more likely to be on antiretroviral treatment than are men. Inadequate representation of women in clinical trials is compounding the dearth of information on sex-based differences in response to life prolonging antiretroviral medication. Progress in addressing gender inequalities and inequities, though incremental, is too slow to reach Millennium Development Goal 6 of halting and reversing the HIV epidemic by 2015. Structural determinants, such as food insufficiency, poverty, decreased access to credit, and inequitable inheritance practices, continue to act with social gender norms to shape the increased risk of exposure to HIV that women and adolescent girls face in many settings. Special measures should be taken to overcome barriers and facilitate enrolment and retention of women in biomedical HIV prevention and treatment trials. Law reform, economic empowerment, gender transformative work, and political mobilization are needed if women and men are to share the power, influence, rights, responsibilities, and opportunities that can create resilience to HIV.

Time with Children: Do Fathers and Mothers Replace Each Other When One Parent is Unemployed?

This article aims to study the substitution of parental time between the mother and the father. Taking the “experience” of unemployment as a release from the time constraint, we analyse time transfers between partners in such a situation. A bivariate Tobit model is applied on the French time-use data. It shows that parents quite rarely substitute the time devoted to children between each other, except for child transportation and childcare. Parents do not want to relinquish their parental activities, a fact which reflects their desire to contribute to the children’s education, and the contribution of parental time to the balance of power between spouses. Exchanges remain asymmetric: non-employed fathers release less their partner from parental tasks than unemployed mothers do, which reflects the weight of gender social norms.