Social-ecological Systems Framework Research Articles

A Comprehensive Framework for Understanding Urban Forests as Social-Ecological Systems

AbstractUrban forest management is a multistakeholder, multi-objective situation whereby a surfeit of synergistic or competing goals may exist. Greater research and applied guidance for what works in which urban forest contexts could help improve urban tree and forest outcomes. The challenge in conducting research of this nature is systematic definitions of “what works” and “which contexts” across multidimensional, polycentric urban forest social-ecological systems. This paper presents a comprehensive framework for studying the complexities in urban forest systems (synthesized from numerous other frameworks in the field) that could be used to generate context-specific insights into urban forest management and dynamics. The logic of using frameworks and specific frameworks that already exist within the field are reviewed. Then, I present the urban forest social-ecological system (UFSES) framework. The UFSES framework specifies 5 first-tier factors: theCharacteristics of Trees in the Urban Forest (T); theSurrounding Growing Environment (E);Management & Institutions (M); andCharacteristics of the Human Community (H); which influenceUrban Forest Outcomes (O). A detailed set of second-tier variables nested within these factors are presented in tables at the end of the paper. The framework can foster holistic systems thinking in a systematic yet flexible way; provide a working draft of a common language for thinking about and studying urban forest systems; and enable comparative case research.

Parental Influence on Child Art Learning: Examining Habitus and Social Trajectories in Taiwanese and U.S. Cultural Contexts

This qualitative study examines how parental habitus in Taiwan and the United States shapes their views on the role of art in child development. Drawing on the social ecological systems framework and habitus theories, it explores parental influences on art education practices. Using a dual-case, cross-cultural approach, the study analyzes interviews, observations, and artifacts from 26 parent-participants with children aged four to seven in art programs. Findings reveal cultural, social, and educational factors influencing parental decisions. Despite cultural differences, both groups prioritize active involvement in their children’s artistic development, emphasizing art’s intrinsic value for fostering creativity, well-being, and character. The study highlights the importance of parent education and advocates for integrating parental perspectives into art education policies. This research enhances understanding of parental influences in children’s art education, emphasizing the need for collaborative efforts to promote art as integral to holistic child development.

Evaluating Sustainability in Social-ecological Systems: 50 Years of Conservation in Florianópolis, Brazil

Abstract This study examines 50 years of land use planning practices in Florianópolis, Brazil, to identify the attributes that resulted in the city’s notable and long-standing commitment to pro-conservation programmes and policies. By analysing key policies, planning strategies, and partnerships that underpin the preservation of forests and green spaces, this research contributes valuable insights to the ongoing discourse on the combined role of conservation governance and collective action in building sustainable and resilient cities. The social-ecological systems framework is applied to evaluate the interactions between multi-level laws, collective action groups, and mid-level government officials to determine the drivers that promoted incremental and accumulative change, ultimately leading to sustainable land conservation practices in Florianópolis. The findings highlight the importance of stakeholder goal alignment, managerial flexibility, and collaboration with diverse actors in achieving long-term conservation goals, particularly in cities adopting an amenity-led growth model. Growing challenges to the continued protection of conservation units in the city resulting from population growth are also raised to advance approaches to evaluating the durability of sustainability initiatives.

Diagnosis of the fragmentation of urban ecological network structure and its social-ecological responses.

The fragmentation of ecological network structures has become a common problem faced by cities. By establishing the urban ecological network under a specific socio-ecological system framework, we aimed to propose a quantitative index to diagnose the fragmentation of the network structure, and to construct detection model to explore the driving factors and mechanism of the network fragmentation. Using Shenzhen City as an example, we used the Floyd-Prim algorithm to generate the skeleton structure of the ecological network and construct a density discontinuity index to diagnose network fragmentation. Combined with the ecological network scenario, social-ecological system framework and a two-layer indicator system were constructed. The detection models were then established to explore the drivers of network disruption and their mode of impact. The models show that the average degree of network fragmentation in Shenzhen was 0.13, and the density of about 85% of corridor discontinuities was greater than 0.01, reflecting the serious state of structural fragmentation. Corridors with more severe structural fragmentation have poorer social-ecological coordination. The fragmentation in Shenzhen was mainly affected by the activities of actors (A) at the microlevel and the resource system (RS) at the macrolevel. The methods and the framework of socio-ecosystem analysis proposed in this paper can reveal the driving factors and influence modes of network fragmentation, providing decision-making reference for ecological restoration practice in urbanized areas.

Free-Riding in Plant Health: A Social-Ecological Systems Approach to Collective Action.

Plant disease epidemics often transcend land management boundaries, creating a collective-action problem where a group must cooperate in a common effort to maximize individual and group benefits. Drawing upon the social-ecological systems framework and associated design principles, we review variables of resource systems, resource units, actors, and governance systems relevant to collective action in plant health. We identify a need to better characterize how attributes of epidemics determine the usefulness of collective management, what influences actors' decisions to participate, what governance systems fit different plant health threats, and how these subsystems interact to lead to plant health outcomes. We emphasize that there is not a single governance structure that ensures collective action but rather a continuum of structures that depend on the key system variables identified. An integrated social-ecological systems approach to collective action in plant health should enable institutional designs to better fit specific plant health challenges.

Prescribed Fire Programming Experiences, Needs, and Challenges of Southeastern United States Extension Professionals

Prescribed fires are used to manage natural areas and mitigate potentially intense and catastrophic wildfires. Education and other outreach activities can increase the acceptance and adoption of prescribed fire use among private landowners. Land grant university-based Extension services are often a trusted source of information in communities on a variety of topics, but no published research has previously assessed Extension’s capacity for prescribed fire education and training. This study uses semi-structured interviews to explore the knowledge and experiences of 23 southeastern U.S. Extension professionals with prescribed fire outreach. Thematic analysis of the interviews guided by Ostrom’s social-ecological systems framework revealed that these Extension professionals face a variety of challenges stemming from their institutions, audiences, and own backgrounds that complicate prescribed fire outreach. These challenges can be overcome, allowing Extension professionals to conduct fire science outreach and play an active role in facilitating networks to build capacity through cooperation.

Urban Greening Management Arrangements between Municipalities and Citizens for Effective Climate Adaptation Pathways: Four Case Studies from The Netherlands

The transition towards nature-based cities has increasingly become a central focus in political–environmental agendas and urban design practices, aiming to enhance climate adaptation, urban biodiversity, spatial equilibrium, and social well-being as part of the ongoing socio-ecological urban transition process. Climate adaptation in cities is a complex problem and one of the main collective challenges for society, but the relationships between city managers and citizens as to urban green care still face many challenges. Parks design guided by technical-expert and globalised criteria; inflexibility from bureaucratic inertia; and citizens’ demands to participate in the urban green transition, sometimes without the necessary knowledge or time, are some of the challenges that require further research. In this study, we examine four long-lasting approaches to green-space management in four cities in the Netherlands, ranging from municipality-driven to community-driven management forms, and encompassing diverse spatial configurations of greenery within the urban fabric. Utilising the theoretical lens of the Social–Ecological Systems Framework, we employ a multiple-case-study approach and ethnographic fieldwork analysis to gain a comprehensive understanding of the norms, collective-choice rules, and social conventions embodied in each urban green management arrangement. The purpose of this research is applied, that is, to provide urban managers and decision-makers with a deeper understanding of drivers to promote effective collaborative management approaches, focusing on specific organisational rules that may contribute to more sustained planning and maintenance pathways for urban green spaces, regardless of changes in political leadership or significant external funding sources. The results of the investigated cases show that long-lasting collaborative management of forests and parks has established a set of collective-choice rules for resource transfer between municipalities and citizens, including non-monetary resources (such as pruning-training courses or guided tours that attract tourists and researchers). Additionally, these arrangements have been favoured by the existence of legal norms that enable co-ownership of the land, and monitoring and sanctioning mechanisms that offer a slightly different interpretation from the evidence identified so far in the scientific literature on collective resource management and organisational studies.

Multi scale analysis of social-ecological system of lobster (Panulirus spp.) fisheries in the Gunungkidul waters, Yogyakarta

Abstract Lobster is a high-value fisheries commodity in Gunungkidul Regency. Lobster resource management in the waters of Gunungkidul Regency has not been well identified in the social-ecological system (SES) framework. This study aims to describe and analyze the dynamics of interrelationships between the social-ecological system components of lobster fisheries in Gunungkidul Regency, which consists of the subsystem of resource systems (RS), resource units (RU), resource actors (RA), and resource governance (RG) and their interrelationships within and between subsystems to formulate a sustainable lobster management strategies in the waters of Gunungkidul Regency. This research was conducted from November 2022 until January 2023. The results of this study have indicated a dynamic interaction between the SES components of lobster fisheries. RS and RA are the SES components with the highest influence, so the slightest changes in RS and RA can cause co-evolutive changes to all the SES components of lobster fisheries in the waters of Gunungkidul Regency.

Unexpected social change: The transformation of the Pati Regency’s coastal community due to the Indonesian government’s trawl restriction policy

Abstract Indonesia’s developmental endeavors, with a focal point on Java Island, presented an overarching concern for the excessive depletion of its coastal and maritime reservoirs. This fundamental notion laid the groundwork for Indonesian governmental actions in 2015 under the stewardship of Minister of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Susi Pujiastuti. During this period, a proactive measure was introduced, entailing the imposition of fishing limitations within the Northern Java Sea vicinity. Embodied within the Ministerial Regulation of Marine Affairs and Fisheries No. 2 of 2015, the restriction of Deploying Trawl and Seine Nets within Indonesian Fishery Management Zones became a tangible manifestation aimed at upholding the preservation of coastal and maritime resources. After an approximate span of eight years since the enforcement of this policy, noteworthy transformations have transpired within the northern Java capture fisheries sector. Comprehensive interviews, meticulous observations, and scrutiny of documents within the Pati Regency (particularly in the Juwana sub-district) within the Central Java province revealed discernible shifts within coastal communities in a relatively brief span. Employing the social-ecological system framework, an analytical lens was cast upon the repercussions of this governmental restriction policy on the circumstances of the Juwana sub-district’s coastal communities, notably the fishermen. The curtailment imposed on fishing apparatus compelled fishermen to modernize and enhance the efficiency of their equipment. The evolving working ethos of the community trended toward collective endeavors and opportunistic pursuit of commercial prospects. Nevertheless, simultaneous challenges surfaced, including societal disparities amidst coastal communities, the marginal involvement of local governance, and the plausible peril of ecosystem detriment beyond the initial boundaries.

Ecology and conservation of cavity-nesting birds in the Neotropics: Recent advances, future directions, and contributions to ornithology

ABSTRACT About 35% of tree-cavity-nesting bird species inhabit the Neotropics, a region crucial to understanding their breeding ecology, conservation, and roles in social-ecological systems. Sixteen years ago, Cornelius et al. (2008) reviewed published knowledge and identified research priorities for Neotropical cavity-nesting birds. Advances since 2008 have not been synthesized and many remain excluded from dominant ornithology because of barriers that disproportionately affect people and ideas from the Global South. Here, we review recent advances in knowledge about Neotropical cavity-nesting birds, introduce the Special Feature series “Ecology and conservation of cavity nesters in the Neotropics,” and outline possible directions for future research. Research in the Neotropics has advanced knowledge of breeding biology, demonstrated that nest sites are limited and birds compete for cavities (mainly in humid forests), identified non-excavated cavities (formed by wood decay) as the main source of cavities and demonstrated the importance of understanding Indigenous and local community relationships to birds. With field studies across the Neotropics, the Special Feature series shows how environment, people’s common imaginaries, vegetation management, and behavior of avian excavators can interact to influence cavity availability, with ecological consequences for many cavity-using organisms. In the future, researchers should center ethno-knowledge and natural history to create an accurate list of cavity-nesting birds in the Neotropics, and integrate this knowledge into studies of population and community ecology. It is also important to study factors that influence cavity dynamics, especially using a social-ecological systems framework and especially in arid and semi-arid regions. We recommend expanding the concept of nest webs (ecological networks of cavity nesters) to incorporate additional cavity substrates (e.g., termitaria, cliffs), cavity alternatives (e.g., bulky enclosed stick nests of many Furnariidae), and cavity-using taxa beyond birds and mammals (e.g., social insects, snakes), which abound in the Neotropics but were not contemplated in the original nest web formulation. Translated versions of this article are available in Supplementary Material 1 (Spanish) and Supplementary Material 2 (Portuguese).

Mental models of aquaculture governance in Indonesia

Aquaculture stakeholders have mental models, which are the internal cognitive representations of how they understand and prioritize the different features of their aquaculture systems. Individuals and stakeholder groups are likely to have different mental models, with implications for making cooperative governance work and guiding the rapidly emerging sector’s sustainable development. We apply a participatory approach called fuzzy cognitive mapping to capture and compare the mental models of community-based coastal pond aquaculture stakeholders in Indonesia, including farmers, government managers, and researchers who need to work together to govern a rapidly expanding aquaculture sector which faces critical sustainability challenges. To conceptually structure our comparison, we use Elinor Ostrom’s social–ecological systems framework. Our results highlight important differences between stakeholder group mental models which represent potential conflicts of interest and barriers for collaborative governance. Fish farmer models emphasize resource system challenges relating to production instability and risk, while government managers emphasize increasing production intensity to meet sectoral growth targets. Researchers, in contrast, tend to focus on pond waste treatment and water quality management. Governance attributes were consistently perceived as less frequent and less influential compared to other social–ecological dimensions, reflecting perceptions of weak governance in the sector. We identify a critical need for programs aimed at strengthening community-level institutional arrangements for governing shared aquaculture resources, increasing technical knowledge capacity, and managing financial risk. By merging all stakeholder models into a single “community” model, we identify key consensus action situations across the three groups as potential focal points for aquaculture development which may serve as a starting point for actors to work together to identify context-appropriate institutional solutions to these sustainability challenges.

Rural Environmental Governance: A Communal Irrigation System in Greece through the Social–Ecological System Framework

This article delves into the enduring self-governing nature of a traditional irrigation system in a rural community in Greece through the lens of the social–ecological system (SES) framework. The aim is to analyze the variables and interactions that have sustained this community-based governance structure over a century. This study underscores the critical role of social capital, where social networks and effective communication facilitate self-governance in the management of this common pool resource. The findings reveal how actors coordinate social and physical capital when performing daily activities, enabling them to collectively solve common dilemmas. By examining the institutional arrangements and operational dynamics of the irrigation system, the study illuminates the community-led social processes that drive its sustainability. This analysis enhances the understanding of the importance of integrating social and physical capital in governance through collective action to achieve resilience. This study provides insights into alternative pathways for building resilience and discusses an irrigation system as a communal autonomous space that prioritizes social equity, democratic decision-making, and social–ecological contacts.

Indicator assessment of groundwater resource sustainability: Using the framework of socio-ecological systems in Hamedan - Bahar Plain, Iran

Study areaIran. Study focusHamedan-Bahar plain is one of the important plains in the west of Iran, which is facing a shortage of water resources and excessive extraction of groundwater resources. The purpose of this article is to identify and evaluate the status of sustainability governance indicators using the knowledge of local experts, which can be an effective step towards the sustainable management of groundwater resources. In this paper, we apply Ostrom’s Social-Ecological Systems Framework (SESF) as a diagnostic tool with 52 indicators to assess the sustainability of groundwater resources. New hydrological insights for the regionBased on key informant interviews with local experts and stakeholders, we use the TOPSIS technique and the Shannon Entropy methodologies to weigh and rank indicators influencing sustainability. Findings revealed that the indicators within the category Resource Systems (RS) and Resource Units (RU) with values of 0.74, and 0.70, are the most stable contributing factors to local sustainability, respectively. In contrast, the Governance System (GS), Actor (A), and Interaction (I) first-tier variables were evaluated as less stable, along with Outcomes (O). This suggests that social factors and diverse outcomes may need further attention in the region to ensure management and policy development that can better enable sustainable outcomes. This analysis also demonstrates the usefulness of a comprehensive science-based framework for organizing, analyzing, and presenting a wide range of complex information to inform policymakers and planners.

Community-Centered Approach to Integrated Coastal Management Strategy for Sustainable Development of the Blue Economy in Mtwara Region, Tanzania

This article explores the potential of the Blue Economy and its application for sustainable development, focusing on the Mtwara region in Tanzania. It begins by examining the definitions, drivers, and future trends of the Blue Economy. The study is guided by three primary objectives: assessing current coastal resources and ecosystems in Mtwara, evaluating the effectiveness of existing Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) initiatives, and analyzing policy and governance frameworks related to coastal resource management in Tanzania. The research methodology includes a review of governance frameworks across major Blue Economy sectors and semi-structured interviews to uncover insights, challenges, and policy implications. Guided by the Social-Ecological Systems (SES) framework, the article emphasizes the interconnectedness of human activities and natural processes, essential for sustainable development. The article is structured into sections: background on the Blue Economy, foundational perspectives, discussion, and conclusion.

Land reallocation and collective action in the commons: Application of social-ecological system framework with evidence from rural China

There is already a rich literature on collective action surrounding irrigation systems, which constitutes a significant mainstream knowledge system in the field of collective action. However, within this mainstream knowledge system, little attention has been paid to the impact of land reallocation with demographic changes on collective action. This form of land reallocation is a unique phenomenon under the common property rights in China, which is rare in the world. Based on the theoretical framework of social-ecological systems and survey data obtained from 4809 households in 16 provinces of rural China, the empirical results indicate a significant adverse influence of volatile land reallocation on collective action related to irrigation, which is mediated by land transfer, average parcel size, and village disputes. These results underline the need for secure land tenure to foster collective action in rural areas. This research contributes new variables and empirical evidence from China to the field of collective action research. Additionally, this study broadens the scope of the traditional economic focus of agriculture on land reallocation by encompassing the realm of commons governance.

Evaluating stakeholder perceptions on drone use in forest restoration using a social–ecological systems framework

Abstract Forest restoration is critical for meeting global objectives related to climate change mitigation, biodiversity conservation and sustainable livelihoods. Recently, new technologies such as unmanned aerial vehicles (hereafter drones) have been promoted to support activities across the planning, implementation, monitoring and maintenance stages of forest restoration. Yet, there is little empirical data on how the development and application of drones are perceived by restoration managers and stakeholders and how drones intersect with existing forest social–ecological systems (SESs). Here, we investigate how drone tree planting initiatives in Australia can support ecosystem restoration. Through interviews and focus groups with key actors, we examine the opportunities and challenges that have been experienced or are foreseen with drone use. Opportunities included the ability of drones to access degraded sites that are difficult or unsafe to access on foot, for example, following bushfires, floods or landslides. They were also perceived to ease the labour shortage of bush regenerators in Australia. Drones were considered particularly useful when operating at scales of around 20–100 ha. Challenges included restrictive flying regulations that prohibit use of artificial intelligence to plot courses through complex terrain, their unproven ability to control or eradicate weeds and the uncertain supply, germination and survival rates of seeds—upon which drone‐based restoration relies. Drone use may also reduce the emotional, spiritual and cultural connections of people to the land, as compared to hand‐planting seeds or seedlings. We conclude by conceptualising how drone‐assisted restoration can be embedded within a forest SESs management framework. Ultimately, we argue that drones offer a ‘boutique’ restoration approach that supports, rather than replaces, traditional forest restoration techniques. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Integrating Indigenous Knowledge into Livestock Policy Formulation

Purpose: The general study sought to understand the integration of indigenous knowledge into livestock policy formulation. Methodology: The study adopted a desktop research methodology. Desk research refers to secondary data or that which can be collected without fieldwork. Desk research is basically involved in collecting data from existing resources hence it is often considered a low cost technique as compared to field research, as the main cost is involved in executive’s time, telephone charges and directories. Thus, the study relied on already published studies, reports and statistics. This secondary data was easily accessed through the online journals and library. Findings: The findings reveal that there exists a contextual and methodological gap relating to the integration of indigenous knowledge into livestock policy formulation. Preliminary empirical review revealed that indigenous knowledge systems offer significant value to sustainable and resilient livestock management. It found that participatory policy-making, which includes indigenous communities, leads to more effective and inclusive policies. The study identified gaps in current policy frameworks, particularly the lack of systematic documentation and integration of indigenous knowledge, and recommended measures to address these gaps. It emphasized that aligning national policies with international frameworks like UNDRIP can enhance global sustainability efforts, improve food security, and promote biodiversity conservation. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: The Social-Ecological Systems Theory, Traditional Ecological Knowledge Theory and Participatory Action Research Theory may be used to anchor future studies on integrating indigenous knowledge into livestock policy formulation. The study made several key recommendations, contributing to theory, practice, and policy. Theoretically, it suggested expanding the Social-Ecological Systems (SES) and Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) frameworks to include indigenous livestock practices. Practically, it recommended documenting indigenous knowledge through community-based repositories and implementing training programs combining traditional and modern practices. Policy recommendations included involving indigenous representatives in policy-making processes, formally recognizing indigenous knowledge in policy documents, and aligning national policies with international frameworks like the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP). These steps aimed to enhance sustainability, equity, and resilience in livestock management. Keywords: Indigenous Knowledge, Livestock Policy, Social-Ecological Systems (SES), Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK), Sustainable Livestock Management, Resilience

Livelihood, irrigation, and landslide: Unfolding the human-water-land nexus using an integrative framework

Irrigation-induced landslides occur globally and cause destructive consequences. Farmers’ dual roles as the cause and victim of irrigation-induced landslides call for systematic assessment of the nested human-water-land interactions to mitigate landslides. This study develops an analytical framework based on social-ecological system framework (SESF) and sustainable livelihood framework (SLF), which is applied to diagnose human-water-land interactions in the case of Heifangtai (HFT) in Loess Plateau, China. A three-tiered indicator system includes 68 indicators to explicitly assess the first- and second-tier variables in the integrative SESF-SLF. Multi-sourced data was collected, triangulated, and analyzed to unfold the interactions, dynamics, and evolutions in the regional SES and individual livelihood. The results show that the interactions between farmers’ livelihood strategies and the carrying capacity of regional land and water systems are the primary drivers shaping social-ecological relationships in HFT, followed by resource utilization and actors’ decision-making. Development opportunities are provided based on SES diagnosis, and methodological issues of framework construction and method and data integration are discussed. Integrating individual livelihood perspectives into SES provides a more nuanced solution to explain the specifics of resources utilized in livelihood strategies, which shows applicability and suitability in HFT and other similar cases of human-water-land interaction.

Enhancing sustainability: Exploring the evolution and dynamics of the grassland social-ecological system in Inner Mongolia over the past 260a

Understanding the intricate relationship between social-ecological systems (SES) coupling and long-term regional sustainable development is critical for effective management strategies. While recent research has predominantly focused on human-earth coupling, there is a dearth of knowledge concerning the transition of grassland SES from one regime to another and the underlying drivers. This study employs a comprehensive SES framework to identify and analyze interactions within typical pastoral areas of Inner Mongolia, aiming to shed light on the evolution of the grassland SES over the past centuries. Our research defines five distinct evolutionary phases in the grassland SES since the mid-Qing Dynasty. Each phase is characterized by unique social and ecological features, providing a nuanced understanding of the system's dynamics. We establish empirical links between the phases and their driving forces and impacts by assessing the main changes between these periods. Specifically, our findings reveal instances of negative cross-scale effects emerging during the evolution process. We observe that unreasonable resource utilization and an inability to curb ecological degradation may lead to unsustainable traps, posing challenges to long-term sustainability. To illustrate, during the transition from Phase 3 to Phase 4 in the late 19th century, a shift towards sedentary pastoralism led to increased land degradation due to intensified grazing practices. This unsustainable trajectory highlights the importance of adaptive management strategies to mitigate such negative consequences. This study contributes insights into the social and ecological management of grassland pastoral areas in China and for global analogous regions. By addressing the identified phases and their associated challenges, our research provides a foundation for crafting sustainable policies and practices to ensure the resilience of grassland SES in diverse geographical contexts.

Inspired to build understanding: learning about sustainability and environmental education from within a virtual world

This study explores the use of virtual worlds, specifically Minecraft, on sustainability education and cognitive skills. Using the Teaching to Inspire model as a lens, we examine how students design sustainable virtual buildings and cityscapes aligned with the UN Sustainable Development Goals and the social-ecological systems (SES) framework. Our research demonstrates how virtual experiences can inspire future-thinking mindsets. The findings underscore the significance of curiosity, passion, and drive in the conative domain as housed in promoting student engagement and understanding of sustainability. The study emphasises the crucial role of teachers in facilitating critical thinking, inquiry, and reflection within virtual spaces to create a sense of place and emotional connection. This paper contributes to the existing literature on sustainability education and provides valuable insights into the potential of virtual worlds for environmental education.