Social Desirability Research Articles

The Role of Self-Regulation in Internet Addiction during Adolescence

During adolescence, individuals experience a period of significant development of emotional control, self-regulation and decision-making skills. While this is a period of opportunity for adolescents to benefit from knowledge, social life, and physical activities, it is also a time where the excessive availability of information and internet usage can potentially have detrimental effects on their mental health, academic performance, and physiology. This study aims to discuss the potential relationship between low-level self-regulation and the development of internet addiction in adolescents. With the widespread use of smartphones among young people, internet addiction has become a severe problem. Adolescents who prioritize short-term goals and focus on immediate gratification or adopt competitive gamming style may exhibit low-level self-regulation, which is a risk factor for developing internet addiction. In addition, poor family functioning, low parent education, the presence of interparental conflict, and restrictive parental mediation may also be significant factors contributing to the onset of internet addiction. Furthermore, the co-occurrence of lower self-regulation and severe internet addiction may have a substantial negative impact on academic performance and quality of life. The previous studys findings demonstrate a causal relationship between self-regulation and internet addiction. However, applying voluntary sampling methods to collect data, social desirability biases, and cultural bias are some of the limitations of most research in this area. Future research should adopt stratified sampling methods, tailor their survey and instruments to be culturally sensitive to investigate the underlying mechanisms that give rise to this association.

The Impact of Motivation to Experience Happiness on Depressive Symptoms

The growing mental health concerns worldwide have highlighted the need to study depression as it heavily impacts overall well-being and life satisfaction. Depression research investigates genetic, environmental, and psychological factors for effective prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Meanwhile, motivation plays a crucial role in individual and organizational success and well-being, exploring intrinsic and extrinsic factors, cognitive and emotional processes, and social and environmental influences to optimize outcomes. This review paper examined the complex relationship between motivation and depression, focusing on the direct and indirect relationship between attitudes toward happiness and depression, relevant factors in the relationship, and the underlying neural mechanisms. The review discussed how different factors could contribute to the development and maintenance of depressive symptoms through multiple pathways and the underlying neural mechanisms that may be involved, particularly asymmetries in alpha oscillations. All in all, the findings highlighted the complex relationship between motivation and depression and proposed potential intervention targets to reduce the risk of depressive symptoms in susceptible individuals. One of the major limitations of available research is that some studies reviewed in this paper rely on self-report measures, which may be influenced by social desirability bias and other biases that could affect the validity of the results. Future research should explore using various methods to have a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between motivation and depression. Understanding the relationship between motivation and depression can lead to improved interventions, customized treatments, and preventive programs for children and adolescents.

The effect of animated Sci-Fi characters' racial presentation on narrative engagement, wishful identification, and physical activity intention among children.

Characters play an integral role in animated narratives, but their visual racial presentation has received limited attention. A diverse group of U.S. children watched a 15-min physical activity-promoting animated Sci-Fi narrative. They were randomly assigned to one of three conditions, which varied the lead characters' racial presentation: realistic racially unambiguous (Original: White children, Black mother), realistic racially ambiguous (Ambiguous: All with brown skin without specified race/ethnicity), and fantastical racially ambiguous (Fantastical: All with brown skin with fantastical hair-and-eye color schemes). We assessed narrative engagement, wishful identification, and physical activity intention. Controlling for social desirability and multigroup ethnic identity, children who watched Fantastical characters showed significantly higher narrative engagement than those who watched Original characters, but they did not statistically differ from those who watched Ambiguous characters. Structural equation modeling indicated that narrative engagement and wishful identification fully mediated the racial representation effect (Fantastical vs. Original) on physical activity intention.

Effect of collaborative consumption on sustainable homestay development: an empirical study

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to explore the factors that influence sustainable homestay development and suggest a model for adopting and implementing the homestay concept and its contribution towards sustainable rural development in Uttarakhand, India.Design/methodology/approachResearchers have collected a total of 360 responses from tourists, homestay owners/villagers and managers associated with homestay businesses in Uttarakhand to examine, assess and analyse the data with the help of different statistical tools such as SPSS and AMOS to validate the concept of homestay and its impact on sustainable rural development.FindingsThe analysis uncovered that collaborative consumption, sharing economy and family feeling and community development are positively associated with and, in return, community development affects sustainable development.Research limitations/implicationsThis study enables us to explain the “collaborative consumption” in the context of homestays functional in the state of Uttarakhand only.Practical implicationsThe study results in evidence of crucial implications for policymakers. Policymakers should focus on opportunities in tourism and its integration with economic, environmental and social goals. Homestays will be new avenues for economic and sustainable development.Social implicationsHomestay offers reasonable and cheap lodging for tourists within the existing ancient homes, typically restored for the guests to form a comfortable stay. Homestay is adopted to facilitate community-based tourism in the state. It also helps in developing a source of livelihood for the community. It is helpful for individuals’ economic, social and aesthetic desires to be consummated by maintaining cultural integrity, ecological processes, biodiversity and natural support systems through homestay, as social entrepreneurship. Homestay has been envisaged as a driver to realise the sustainable development goals by steering the pathways to a property future for all involved within the elected hill states.Originality/valueThis study validates a new homestay model that will be useful for developing community and achieving sustainable development.

Implementing Shared Decision-Making for Multiple Sclerosis: The MS-SUPPORT Tool

BackgroundDisease modifying therapies (DMTs) offer opportunities to improve the course of multiple sclerosis (MS), but decisions about treatment are difficult. People with multiple sclerosis (pwMS) want more involvement in decisions about DMTs, but new approaches are needed to support shared decision-making (SDM) because of the number of treatment options and the range of outcomes affected by treatment. We designed a patient-centered tool, MS-SUPPORT, to facilitate SDM for pwMS. We sought to evaluate the feasibility and impact of MS-SUPPORT on decisions about disease modifying treatments (DMTs), SDM processes, and quality-of-life. MethodsThis multisite randomized controlled trial compared the SDM intervention (MS-SUPPORT) to control (usual care) over a 12-month period. English-speaking adults with relapsing MS were eligible if they had an upcoming MS appointment and an email address. To evaluate clinician perspectives, participants’ MS clinicians were invited to participate. Patients were referred between November 11, 2019 and October 23, 2020 by their MS clinician or a patient advocacy organization (the Multiple Sclerosis Association of America). MS-SUPPORT is an online, interactive, evidence-based decision aid that was co-created with pwMS. It clarifies patient treatment goals and values and provides tailored information about MS, DMTs, and adherence. Viewed by patients before their clinic appointment, MS-SUPPORT generates a personalized summary of the patient's treatment goals and preferences, adherence, DMT use, and clinical situation to share with their MS clinician. Outcomes (DMT utilization, adherence, quality-of-life, and SDM) were assessed at enrollment, post-MS-SUPPORT, post-appointment, and quarterly for 1 year. ResultsParticipants included 501 adults with MS from across the USA (84.6% female, 83% white) and 34 of their MS clinicians (47% neurologists, 41% Nurse Practitioners, 12% Physician Assistants). Among the 203 patients who completed MS-SUPPORT, most (88.2%) reported they would recommend it to others and that it helped them talk to their doctor (85.2%), understand their options (82.3%) and the importance of taking DMTs as prescribed (82.3%). Among non-users of DMTs at baseline, the probability ratio of current DMT use consistently trended higher over one-year follow-up in the MS-SUPPORT group (1.30 [0.86-1.96]), as did the cumulative probability of starting a DMT within 6-months, with shorter time-to-start (46 vs 90 days, p=0.24). Among the 222 responses from 34 participating clinicians, more clinicians in the MS-SUPPORT group (vs control) trended towards recommending their patient start a DMT (9 of 108 (8%) vs 5 of 109 (5%), respectively, p=0.26). Adherence (no missed doses) to daily-dosed DMTs was higher in the MS-SUPPORT group (81.25% vs 56.41%, p=.026). Fewer patients forgot their doses (p=.046). The MS-SUPPORT group (vs control) reported 1.7 fewer days/month of poor mental health (p=0.02). ConclusionsMS-SUPPORT was strongly endorsed by patients and is feasible to use in clinical settings. MS-SUPPORT increased the short-term probability of taking and adhering to a DMT, and improved long-term mental health. Study limitations include selection bias, response bias, social desirability bias, and recall bias. Exploring approaches to reinforcement and monitoring its implementation in real-world settings should provide further insights into the value and utility of this new SDM tool.

Psychologist attitudes towards disclosure and believability of childhood sexual abuse: Can biases affect perception, judgement, and action?

BackgroundThe perception of CSA disclosure belief is critical to long-term outcomes for CSA survivors. Despite disclosures often occurring in clinical settings CSA survivors do not always report a sense of clinician belief in response to their disclosure. Ascertaining the factors that influence clinician belief is essential to improving outcomes. ObjectiveThis study examined whether language (i.e., word choice to describe abuse) and ongoing relationship status with a perpetrator impact perceptions of CSA belief amongst psychologists. MethodsThis 2 × 2 within subject's study examined relationship effects (ongoing verses estranged) and language effects (consensual verses abusive), embedded in fictitious vignettes, on believability. Seventy-five participants completed demographic surveys, rated and discussed belief in four vignettes, and completed validated scales capturing clinician trauma history and CSA myth endorsement. ResultsA significant main effect for relationship was found with ongoing victim-perpetrator relationships being less believed than depictions of estranged relationships (F(1,3) = 15.57, p = .001, h2 = 0.174). While no main effect for language was found (F(1,3) = 0.06, p = .801, h2 = 0.001) content analysis of the open-ended items revealed 80 % of psychologists reported being influenced by the language manipulations. Correlations revealed male psychologists were less likely to believe disclosures and more likely to endorse CSA myths than females, and psychologists who had engaged in trauma training appeared to have heightened disclosure belief and lower myth endorsement. ConclusionsWhile psychologists generally report belief in CSA disclosures they appear to evaluate specific disclosure aspects to inform this level of belief. Issues around social desirability, measure sensitivity, and learning effects are discussed alongside the importance of trauma training for psychologists.

Does Parenting Perfectionism Ironically Increase Violent Behaviors from Parent towards Children?

Past research has shown that perfectionistic strivings (PS) and perfectionistic concerns (PC) in the parenting domain are associated with an increase in parental burnout (PB), and that PB causally increases violence towards one's offspring. One may therefore wonder whether parenting perfectionism may ironically increase violence towards one's offspring. To the best of our knowledge, no study has ever investigated whether perfectionism (PS and PC) predicts violence towards one's offspring, or whether PB could explain this link. In the current pre-registered cross-lagged study, we hypothesized that an increase in PS and PC would lead to an increase in violence via an increase in PB. 228 participants responded to a longitudinal online survey, with three measurement occasions spaced 2 months apart. Contrary to expectations, cross-lagged path models revealed that violence towards the offspring prospectively predicted an increase in PS and PC. Mediation models showed that PB was not a significant mediator. Results of all models did not change when controlling for social desirability. The present study shows that violence towards the offspring increases the risk of PS and PC in parents. Results are discussed in light of the feeling of guilt experienced by parents. Current worries that parenting perfectionism may paradoxically increase violence appear to be unwarranted at this stage. Moreover, correlation is not causation; thus, emphasizing caution before coming to clinically and societally relevant conclusions in cross-sectional studies. Thus, the PB and child maltreatment literature should slowly shift to using more longitudinal and causal designs.

The influence of personality on patient-reported outcomes in women undergoing implant-based breast reconstruction

Despite the lack of hard evidence for causality, some women attribute their systemic complaints to their silicone breast implants. Personality and psychological distress are associated with the development of medically unexplained symptoms. It could be hypothesized that these psychological factors are related to the development of breast implant illness (BII). In a previous study, we found a relationship between personality traits and BII-related complaints in patients with cosmetic breast implants. This association may also exist in patients with implant-based breast reconstruction. This cross-sectional study evaluated the association between personality, self-reported health complaints, and health- and breast-related quality of life (QoL) in women with implant-based breast reconstruction. Women who underwent breast reconstruction between January 2015 and December 2018 in either the Maastricht University Medical Center or Zuyderland Medical Center were invited to participate in this study. Participants were asked to complete a physical complaint score form and the BREAST-Q, SF-36, and EPQ-RSS questionnaires through an online survey. The association between outcomes was analyzed with multivariate linear regression. A total of 118 women completed the questionnaires. Social desirability and extroversion were predominant personality traits. Neuroticism levels were comparable with normative data. Neuroticism correlated significantly with health status and breast-related QoL. Health-related QoL had the strongest correlation with neuroticism (β=-2.93, β=-3.41, p<0.001). This study suggests that personality, and neuroticism in particular, may contribute to the development of medically unexplained complaints in women with implant-based reconstruction. The influence of personality on BII needs to be further investigated in large prospective studies.

Social Desirability and Attitude of Teachers Towards Inclusive Education in Tertiary Level

Social Desirability and Attitude of Teachers Towards Inclusive Education in Tertiary Level

Understanding the Association Between Social Desirability, Trait-Seriousness, and Trait-Cheerfulness in Indian Mothers

This quantitative study explores the positive psychological traits exhibited by Indian mothers and their implications for holistic parenting. The study intends to explore the influence of social desirability (SD) on trait-cheerfulness (TCH) has the potential to inform interventions and programs that promote positive parenting practices. Data were collected from 32 participants using a questionnaire with items from State-Trait-Cheerfulness-Inventory-T-60 (STCI-T-60) and The Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale-Short Form to measure TCH, trait-seriousness (SE), bad-mood (BD) and SD, respectively. The scores were converted to numerical values, SD = 88.46%, TCH = 86.25%, TSE = 80%, BM = 58.75%, for correlation analysis. The results suggest a positive relationship between SD and cheerfulness, emphasizing the importance of managing negative emotions and striking a balance between responsibility and playfulness in raising children. This research highlights the significance of supporting Indian mothers in managing negative emotions, fostering positive emotional climates, and maintaining a balance between responsibility and playfulness. By integrating these findings into parenting interventions, professionals can promote the overall well-being of Indian mothers and their children, creating a positive and nurturing environment for healthy development.

How do I want the city council to spend our budget? Conceiving MaaS from a citizen's perspective … (as well as biking infrastructure and public transport)

While several governmental and research efforts are set upon mobility-as-a-service (MaaS), most of them are driven by individual travel behavior and potential usage. However, considering only individuals’ preferences carries the risk of neglecting societal benefits going beyond individual travel behavior. This study addresses the valuation of different features of MaaS-services from a social desirability perspective as compared to social investments in biking infrastructure and in public transport, and aims at eliciting trade-offs between different features of such projects. This analysis is conducted on the basis of Participatory Value Evaluation (PVE). In PVE-experiments, individuals select their preferred portfolio of government projects given a constrained public budget and societal preferences for (the impacts of) government projects can be determined based on these choices.The results show that the population of Rotterdam exhibits a willingness to allocate public resources to all types of investment projects considered in the analysis. However, the willingness to allocate resources to bike infrastructure projects and public transport seems to be higher than the willingness to dedicate resources to MaaS subsidies. Within the different types of MaaS subsidies considered, subsidies aimed at sustainability exhibit a larger social valuation. Strong negative synergies among similar projects exist, signalizing that individuals prefer diversifying the use of public resources across different types of investment projects.

B - 112 Navigating your Survivorship Journey: Leveraging the Biopsychosocial Model in Conceptualization and Continued Care for Brain Tumor Survivors.

A neuropsychological assessment provides a limited snapshot of functioning based on the aperture of the lens selected. The journey of cancer survivorship is complex, requiring navigation of the social and cultural milieu (Carpentieri et al., 2003; Hoffmann-Lamplmair et al., 2023; Hörnquist et al., 2015; Otth et al., 2021). A biopsychosocial model provides a holistic approach to understanding survivorship (Walsh et al., 2016). The case conceptualization of a 17-year-old non-Hispanic Asian male posterior fossa tumor survivor, 13years post-treatment, will be discussed. Longitudinal neuropsychological assessment data [2011-2023] were compared to identify neurocognitive late effects associated with chemoradiotherapy. Parent- and self-reports of adaptive, behavioral, and emotional functioning were obtained. The impact of reduced verbal communication and overreliance on parent-reports are compared to self-report and clinical assessment data. Neurocognitive late effects (executive functioning, processing speed, verbal fluency) were prominent in 2023. Although two extended episodes of atypical behavior emerged in the past year, parent- and self-reports did not indicate any elevated concerns for emotional dysregulation. However, social desirability bias, tendency to underreport emotional symptoms, and an internal negative self-view were significant on self-reports. Although some changes in functioning could be explained by late effects of treatment (Schreiber et al., 2017), others may be better accounted for by social and cultural factors that impact the conceptualization and acceptance of emotional symptoms (Kim et al., 2013). Acknowledging and disclosing emotional difficulties (Liw et al., 2022), as well as seeking mental health care (Abe-Kim et al., 2007), is culturally mediated and can be both protective and/or limiting.

Correction to: Is the Positive Effect of Education on Ethnic Tolerance a Method Artifact? A Multifactorial Survey Experiment on Social Desirability Bias in Sweden

Correction to: Is the Positive Effect of Education on Ethnic Tolerance a Method Artifact? A Multifactorial Survey Experiment on Social Desirability Bias in Sweden

“Trajectories of treatment response in a cognitive-behavioral therapy intervention for depression and adherence in persons with HIV in South Africa”

BackgroundPeople with HIV (PHW) are at greater risk of depression than the general population. Insight into the time-to-treatment-response and predictors of response to psychotherapy may improve implementation in primary care. MethodsWe assessed depression treatment response among 80 participants in a trial of cognitive-behavioral therapy for adherence and depression (CBT-AD) for PWH with MDD and suboptimal antiretroviral therapy (ART) adherence. Participants self-reported depressive symptoms (CESD) at each therapy session. Clinicians assessed participants' depression (HAMD), along with potential predictors of response, every four months for one year. Latent class analyses examined classes of responders for the active and the post-treatment phases. Regression analyses identified predictors of class membership for each phase. ResultsDuring the active treatment phase (CESD) we identified an early response (at session 2 and with continued trajectory of improvement) and a non-response group. There were also two classes during post-treatment (HAM-D): early responders (4-month) and late responders (12-month). Distress aversion was associated with lower likelihood of early response to CBT-AD (aOR = 0.74, 95%CI[0.56–0.90], p = .009), and social support was associated with increased likelihood of early response (aOR = 2.24, 95%CI[1.07–5.46], p = .045). LimitationsSelf-reported depression during the treatment phase may have resulted from social desirability bias. ConclusionsMost participants responded to CBT-AD early during treatment (89 %) and had sustained improvements in depression by 4 months (80 %). Distress aversion was a risk factor for late response, and social support was protective. Future research is needed to assess the optimal dose of CBT-AD in resource limited settings.

Investigating the relationship between self-reported (near) crashes, fined traffic offences, and risky riding behaviours among Flemish motorcyclists using the motorcycle rider behaviour questionnaire

Little research on motorcycling safety and rider behaviour has been performed in Belgium. This study used the Motorcycle Rider Behaviour Questionnaire (MRBQ) as part of a larger questionnaire on motorcyclist safety. Data was collected in Flanders (i.e., the Dutch speaking part of Belgium) through 560 motorcycle riders by means of a questionnaire that consisted out of the MRBQ, demographics, personal background, riding experience and exposure, vehicle information, and self-reported (near) crashes and fined offences. Results showed a factor structure consistent with previous studies, comprising the factors ‘traffic errors’, ‘speed violations’, ‘stunts’, ‘protective gear’, and ‘control errors’. Due to the limited number of crashes, only an effect on near-crashes and violations was observed for some of the MRBQ factors, as well as for the age and exposure of riders. This research indicated that the MRBQ has its merits in terms of both construct and predictive validity. Nonetheless, the MRBQ was found to be subject to limitations. The need for more research was raised to examine the potential presence and impact of a social desirability bias and common method variance. Additionally, Implications for practitioners and policy makers have been discussed.

Analysis of subjective sleep quality and influencing factors of depression in ARDS patients

BackgroundAcute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) is a severe lung disease, and its condition can lead to depressive disorders in patients. Understanding the subjective sleep quality of ARDS patients with depressive disorder conditions and their influencing factors is essential for developing effective interventions and improving patients’ sleep quality.Subjects and MethodsSixty patients with depression were selected as the study subjects and randomly divided into experimental and control groups, with 30 people in each group. Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), Symptom Checklist-90 (SCL-90), Self-Rating Anxiety Scale (SAS), Social Desirability Scale (SDS), State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), Life Event Scale (LES), and SQL Server Reporting Services (SSRS) were used for assessment. The data collected were analyzed by the relationship between PSQI and the results of the other six rating scales using SPSS23.0.ResultsSleep disorders were found in 77.8% of 60 patients with depression. The total score and factors of PSQI were significantly correlated with SCL-90 somatization, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, anxiety, and total mean score (P&lt;0.05). The PSQI was positively correlated with SAI in SAS and STAI (P&lt;0.01) but not correlated with TAI in STAI (P&gt;0.05). The somatization disorder factor in SDS was significantly correlated with the PSQI factors and total scores except for the sleep persistence factor (P&lt;0.05). The daytime dysfunction factor in PSQI was significantly correlated with the full score of social support (P&lt;0.05), whereas there was no significant correlation between PSQI and LES (P&gt;0.05).ConclusionsDepressive disorders in ARDS patients hurt their subjective sleep quality.

Trait Emotional Intelligence, Social Desirability and Non-Suicidal Self-harm Behavior among Adolescents: A Cross-Sectional Study

Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) is the intentional and acute harm done to one's body without the intention of committing suicide. Suicidal behavior (SB) and non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) are the two primary health issues affecting teenagers. Despite increasing attention to such issues, very little work is done regarding these issues in Pakistan. The objective of this research was to determine the incidence of non-suicidal self-harm in adolescents and to find an association between non-suicidal self-injury and traits of emotional intelligence and social desirability in Pakistani adolescents who made up a typical sample of the general community. For this purpose, 195 participants were selected from different hospitals and areas of Islamabad and Rawalpindi. The non-suicidal self-injury student questionnaire, the trait emotional intelligence questionnaire (TEIQue-SF), and the social desirability scale (SDS-17) were used to collect data. According to the findings, people who were more socially desirable and have lower emotional intelligence traits were more likely to engage in NSSI. The results of this research provide insight into the intricate interactions among these factors and how they affect NSSI. Mental health practitioners can improve their capacity to recognize and assist people who are experiencing NSSI, thereby, supporting their well-being and recovery, by developing a deeper understanding of these aspects.

The Social Dynamics of Fun: Can Fun Youth Bring Peers Together and Positively Influence Their Friends?

There is a critical gap in our understanding of how peer relationships contribute to positive youth development. To address this gap the current study uses longitudinal social network data to examine if fun youth were socially desirable, inclusive of peers, and positive agents of social influence during the transition to adolescence. Participants were 210 students (47% female; Mage = 11.55 years at the outset) from 8 classes in 3 schools in a small Lithuanian city. Each child received a fun score consisting of nominations from classmates as "someone who is fun to be around". Participants also nominated up to five classmates as friends. Fun students received more friendship nominations than their peers and they maintained higher levels of social desirability over time. Fun youth appeared to be inclusive of their peers in that fun youth did not appear to have preferences to befriend only those like themselves. The friends of fun youth were positively influenced such that they were perceived to be more fun over time. The findings suggests that fun youth may promote positive social change within peer groups.

The Patient-Perceived Helpfulness of Measures Scale: Development and Validation of a Scale to Assess the Helpfulness of Using Measures in Psychological Treatment.

In response to the increase in Routine Outcome Monitoring and Clinical Feedback, the Patient-Perceived Helpfulness of Measures Scale (ppHMS) was developed to assess the helpfulness-as perceived by patients-of using measures in psychological treatment. Study 1: The construct of patient-perceived helpfulness of measures was explored using thematic analysis with 15 patients. Six helpful and three unhelpful themes were identified and informed item development. Study 2: 28 items were formulated and rated by experts. Ten items were taken forward for psychometric shortening in a sample of 76 patients. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) led to an adequately fitting six-item model with excellent internal consistency, and convergence with the Delighted-Terrible single item of product satisfaction and a single item of measure helpfulness. Study 3: In a stratified online sample of 514 U.K. psychotherapy patients, a five-item model constituted the best fit. The final ppHMS had excellent internal consistency (McDonald's ω = .90), convergent validity with psychotherapy satisfaction (r = .5; p < .001), divergence from social desirability (r = .1), and metric and scalar invariance across measures. Study 4: Analyses were replicated and confirmed in a stratified U.S. sample (n = 602). The ppHMS is a reliable and valid scale that can be used to assess and compare patients' perceptions of the helpfulness of different measures as part of their psychological treatment.

Could vote buying be socially desirable? Exploratory analyses of a ‘failed’ list experiment

List experiments encourage survey respondents to report sensitive opinions they may prefer not to reveal. But, studies sometimes find that respondents admit more readily to sensitive opinions when asked directly. Often this over-reporting is viewed as a design failure, attributable to inattentiveness or other nonstrategic error. This paper conducts an exploratory analysis of such a ‘failed’ list experiment measuring vote buying in the 2019 Nigerian presidential election. We take this opportunity to explore our assumptions about vote buying. Although vote buying is illegal and stigmatized in many countries, a significant literature links such exchanges to patron-client networks that are imbued with trust, reciprocity and long-standing benefits, which might create incentives for individuals to claim having been offered to participate in vote buying. Submitting our data to a series of tests of design, we find that over-reporting is strategic: respondents intentionally reveal vote buying and it’s likely that those who reveal vote buying have in fact being offered to participate in vote buying. Considering reasons for over-reporting such as social desirability and network benefits, and the strategic nature of over-reporting, we suggest that “design failure" is not the only possible conclusion from unexpected list experiment results. With this paper we show that our theoretical assumptions about sensitivity bias affect the conclusions we can draw from a list experiment.