Socially Desirable Responding Research Articles

Men's sexual activity and perceptions of the facial attractiveness of unknown women

Prior research indicated that women's greater frequency of sexual activities is associated with perceiving the faces of unknown men as less attractive. In the present study, men aged 18–30 (n = 126) reported the frequency of a variety of sexual behaviors and rated the facial attractiveness and friendliness of 24 women. Unlike the results obtained with women, men's recent sexual behaviors were largely unrelated to perceptions of women's faces and this was the case independent of currently being in a stable relationship. There was no indication of confounding with social desirability responding. Results are discussed as consistent with evolutionary psychology predictions and consistent with men being more likely than women to find others attractive, even when satisfied with their primary intimate relationship.

An assessment of equivalence between Internet and paper-based surveys: evidence from collectivistic cultures

Little research exists that addresses the equivalence in collectivistic cultures of paper- versus Internet-based surveys. This study addressed this gap and examined the measurement equivalence of individual innovativeness scales between Internet surveys and paper-based surveys within a collectivistic culture (with China serving as our example). The study analyzed and compared survey data from both paper and web-based surveys using confirmatory factor analysis. The assessment of invariance included the levels of configural, metric, scalar, and covariance invariance. The means and variance of latent variables were also compared. The results show that measurements are invariant at the two levels (configural and metric), and the covariances between latent variables are also equivalent, but the mean and variance differences of latent variables are apparent. The results indicate that when conducting research in collectivistic cultures and collecting data from distinct survey modes, researchers should concern themselves with the potential of extreme response patterns and the inclination of social desirability responding, as well as considering the measurement invariance across survey modes.

Sometimes a Bear is Just a Bear: No Evidence of Nonclinical Adult Toy Animal Ownership Indicating Emotion Dysregulation

Although some studies of clinical populations suggest an association of adult toy animal ownership with personality disorder, studies of nonclinical populations have been lacking. In a nonclinical young adult sample (N = 148), we found no association of toy animal ownership with use of immature, mature, or neurotic defense mechanisms; avoidant or anxious attachment style; trait conscientiousness; heart rate variability (an index of self-regulatory strength); or social desirability responding. The results do not provide evidence for an association of adult nonclinical toy animal ownership with psychological or psychophysiological indices of immaturity, conscientiousness, insecure attachment, or lack of self-regulatory strength.

Greater Resting Heart Rate Variability Is Associated with Orgasms Through Penile–Vaginal Intercourse, But Not with Orgasms from Other Sources

Resting heart rate variability (HRV), a marker of parasympathetic activity, is a predictor of health and longevity. Better erectile function is associated with greater resting HRV (assessed by high frequency power [HF]), and in both sexes, penile-vaginal intercourse (PVI) is the only sexual behavior consistently associated with indices of better physical and mental health, including greater resting HRV (assessed by standard deviation [SD] of heart rate [HR]). To examine the hypotheses that greater frequency of orgasms attained through PVI (for women, without additional simultaneous clitoral stimulation; vaginal orgasm) are associated with greater resting HRV. A differential hypothesis is that HRV measures will be unrelated to orgasmic frequency from noncoital sexual activities. Coitally experienced men and women (N = 143) had their heart rate measured for 5 minutes and reported the frequency of various sexual behaviors and corresponding orgasms in a recent representative month. Partial correlations and analyses of covariance controlling for social desirability responding were used to examine the associations of sexual activities with time and frequency domains of HRV. For men, greater resting SD of HR was associated with greater PVI orgasm frequency. For women, greater resting SD of HR was associated with any vaginal orgasm. These findings remained after controlling for cohabitation. Sexual activities were unrelated to HF. Lifetime number of PVI partners was unrelated to SD of HR and HF. Findings are discussed in the context of orgasms through PVI enhancing HRV, and greater parasympathetic tone favoring the capacity to engage in PVI, and in the case of women, to reach vaginal orgasm. The possibility of healthier people having greater resting HRV and more frequent orgasms through specifically PVI is also considered.

Age-Related and Situation-Related Social Desirability Responding Among Chinese Teachers

ABSTRACT Social desirability responding (SDR) was affected by situation and age. However, most research is only concerned with overall SDR without considering the separation of impression management and self-deception. The purpose of this article is to explore the possible different effects of age and situation on the different components of SDR. A total of 158 teachers completed the BIDR at a 2 (high vs. low SDR situation) × 2 (20–29 vs. 30–39 years old) between-group experiment. The results of multivariate analyses, with gender and tenure controlled, suggested that the effects of age and situation on the four specific components were mixed. Impression management enhancement (IME) and denial (IMD) were significantly affected by situations. The older group had significantly higher self-deception enhancement (SDE) and IME scores than the younger one. Females had significantly higher IME scores than males. More age stages and the main effect of gender should be considered in the future.

Vaginal Orgasm Is More Prevalent Among Women with a Prominent Tubercle of the Upper Lip

Recent studies have uncovered multiple markers of vaginal orgasm history (unblocked pelvic movement during walking, less use of immature psychological defense mechanisms, greater urethrovaginal space). Other markers (perhaps of prenatal origin) even without obvious mechanistic roles in vaginal orgasm might exist, and a clinical observation led to the novel hypothesis that a prominent tubercle of the upper lip is such a marker. To examine the hypothesis that a prominent tubercle of the upper lip is associated specifically with greater likelihood of experiencing vaginal orgasm (orgasm elicited by penile-vaginal intercourse [PVI] without concurrent masturbation). Women (N = 258, predominantly Scottish) completed an online survey reporting their frequencies of various sexual activities and corresponding orgasms, age, and the prominence of the tubercle of their upper lip. Social desirability response bias was also assessed. Multivariate associations of lip tubercle prominence with vaginal orgasm (ever and past month consistency) and with orgasm by other means. RESULTS.: A prominent and sharply raised lip tubercle was associated with greater odds (odds ratio = 12.3) of ever having a vaginal orgasm, and also with greater past month vaginal orgasm consistency (an effect driven by the women who never had a vaginal orgasm), than less prominent lip tubercle categories. Lip tubercle was not associated with social desirability responding, or with orgasm triggered by masturbation during PVI, solitary or partner clitoral or vaginal masturbation, vibrator, or cunnilingus. The results are discussed in light of the unique nature of vaginal orgasm and the possibility of prenatal developmental influences.

Parent–Teacher Agreement on 7–Year–Old Children's Personality

Agreement between multiple informants on child personality has received limited attention. Focusing on factor structure, gender differences and the influence of socially desirable responding (SDR), we compared parent and teacher Big Five personality ratings of around 600 7–year olds. Although parent ratings were more desirable than teacher ratings, differential agreement was generally similar to that found for adults, and especially high for ratings of boys. The more evaluative the personality item, the larger the mean–level difference between parents and teachers on that item. However, undesirable items showed the highest levels of differential agreement. In parent ratings, the two poles of Agreeableness formed separate factors. To view Pro–sociality as independent of Antagonism could enable parents to view their child more positively. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Psychological Hardiness Predicts Admission Into Norwegian Military Officer Schools

We examined the role of hardiness in predicting admission into Norwegian Military Officer Schools with data from officer applicants (N = 1,111) who completed a questionnaire containing dispositional hardiness measures (Bartone, 1995) on the first week of a three-week selection period. Successful applicants (M = 36.76) scored significantly higher in hardiness than unsuccessful applicants (M = 35.55, t[1091.44] = −4.64, p < .001, Cohen's d = .28). Furthermore, results of logistic regression analysis showed that, after controlling for gender, age, and social desirability responding, hardiness significantly predicted admission into Military Officer Schools (odds ratio = 1.065).

Vividness of visual imagery and social desirable responding: correlations of the vividness of visual imagery questionnaire with the balanced inventory of desirable responding and the Marlowe–Crowne scale

Correlational research investigating the relationship between scores on self-report imagery questionnaires and measures of social desirable responding has shown only a weak association. However, researchers have argued that this research may have underestimated the size of the relationship because it relied primarily on the Marlowe-Crowne scale (MC; Crowne & Marlowe, Journal of Consulting Psychology, 24, 349-354, 1960), which loads primarily on the least relevant form of social desirable responding for this particular context, the moralistic bias. Here we report the analysis of data correlating the Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire (VVIQ; Marks, Journal of Mental Imagery, 19, 153-166, 1973) with the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (BIDR; Paulhus, 2002) and the MC scale under anonymous testing conditions. The VVIQ correlated significantly with the Self-Deceptive Enhancement (SDE) and Agency Management (AM) BIDR subscales and with the MC. The largest correlation was with SDE. The ability of SDE to predict VVIQ scores was not significantly enhanced by adding either AM or MC. Correlations between the VVIQ and BIDR egoistic scales were larger when the BIDR was continuously rather than dichotomously scored. This analysis indicates that the relationship between self-reported imagery and social desirable responding is likely to be stronger than previously thought.

Life history strategy, identity consolidation, and psychological well-being

Previous research has shown that individual differences in life history strategies co-vary with a large array of variables to the extent that latent variables from a number of psychological measures load on a single (Super-K) factor. Similar to research on the Super-K factor, the purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that various measures of identity would load on a single factor and that this latent variable would in turn be associated with other variables reflecting life history strategy and psychological well-being, making a Super-K factor. A sample of 248 university students were administered a variety of questionnaires related to identity, life history strategy, and psychological well-being. Confirmatory factor analyses revealed the hypothesized Super-K factor and the relationship remained even when controlling for variance in social-desirable responding. The results are discussed in terms of the association between Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development and life history theory.

Methodological considerations regarding response bias effect in substance use research: is correlation between the measured variables sufficient?

Efforts for drug free sport include developing a better understanding of the behavioural determinants that underline doping with an increased interest in developing anti-doping prevention and intervention programmes. Empirical testing of both is dominated by self-report questionnaires, which is the most widely used method in psychological assessments and sociology polls. Disturbingly, the potential distorting effect of socially desirable responding (SD) is seldom considered in doping research, or dismissed based on weak correlation between some SD measure and the variables of interest. The aim of this report is to draw attention to i) the potential distorting effect of SD and ii) the limitation of using correlation analysis between a SD measure and the individual measures. Models of doping opinion as a potentially contentious issue was tested using structural equation modeling technique (SEM) with and without the SD variable, on a dataset of 278 athletes, assessing the SD effect both at the i) indicator and ii) construct levels, as well as iii) testing SD as an independent variable affecting expressed doping opinion. Participants were categorised by their SD score into high- and low SD groups. Based on low correlation coefficients (<|0.22|) observed in the overall sample, SD effect on the indicator variables could be disregarded. Regression weights between predictors and the outcome variable varied between groups with high and low SD but despite the practically non-existing relationship between SD and predictors (<|0.11|) in the low SD group, both groups showed improved model fit with SD, independently. The results of this study clearly demonstrate the presence of SD effect and the inadequacy of the commonly used pairwise correlation to assess social desirability at model level. In the absence of direct observation of the target behaviour (i.e. doping use), evaluation of the effectiveness of future anti-doping campaign, along with empirical testing of refined doping behavioural models, will likely to continue to rely on self-reported information. Over and above controlling the effect of socially desirable responding in research that makes inferences based on self-reported information on social cognitive and behavioural measures, it is recommended that SD effect is appropriately assessed during data analysis.

Greater Tactile Sensitivity and Less Use of Immature Psychological Defense Mechanisms Predict Women's Penile-Vaginal Intercourse Orgasm

Previous research has suggested that diminished tactile sensitivity might be associated with reduced sexual activity and function. Research has also demonstrated significant physiological and psychological differences between sexual behaviors, including immature psychological defense mechanisms (associated with various psychopathologies) impairing specifically women's orgasm from penile-vaginal intercourse (PVI). To examine the extent to which orgasm triggered by PVI (distinguished from other sexual activities) is associated with both greater tactile sensitivity and lesser use of immature psychological defenses. Seventy French-Canadian female university students (aged 18-30) had their finger sensitivity measured with von Frey type microfilaments, completed the Defense Style Questionnaire and a short form of the Marlowe-Crowne social desirability scale, and provided details of the 1 month (and ever) frequencies of engaging in, and having an orgasm from, PVI, masturbation, anal intercourse, partner masturbation, and cunnilingus. Logistic and linear regression prediction of orgasm triggered by PVI from tactile sensitivity, age, social desirability responding, and immature psychological defenses. Having a PVI orgasm in the past month was associated with greater tactile sensitivity (odds ratio=4.0 for each filament point) and less use of immature defense mechanisms (odds ratio=5.1 for each scale point). Lifetime PVI orgasm was associated only with less use of immature defense mechanisms (and lower social desirability responding score). Orgasms triggered by other activities were not associated with either tactile sensitivity or immature defense mechanisms. Tactile sensitivity was also associated with greater past month PVI frequency (inclusion of PVI frequency in a logistic regression model displaced tactile sensitivity), and lesser use of immature defenses was associated with greater past month PVI and PVI orgasm frequencies. Both diminished physical sensitivity and the presence of specific psychological impairments might decrease the likelihood of women's orgasm from specifically PVI, but not other sexual activities.

The Developing of Faking Detection Scale in Application Situation

Using personality tests in personnel selection becomes increasingly popular in industries in China. However, the validity of personality tests is challenged due to the possibility of getting faking answers (Morgeson et al, 2007). Methods dealing with faking in personality tests are available. The most commonly used one is to detect faking by using social desirability (SD) scale, and then calibrate the results to remove the faking effect. However, authors of this study argue that faking is conceptually different from socially desirable responding (SDR), and using SD Scale to measure faking effect is inappropriate. The reasons include: (1) although both faking and SDR are the tendency to exaggerate, the former is influenced by job desirability, while the later is influenced by social desirability. (2) SD Scale can not measure Impression Management and Self-Deception independently and has poor construct validity (Paulhus, 2002). This research developed a "Faking Detection Scale for General Positions" in seven steps based on the procedures used to develop the SD scale and the special tributes of faking. First, behavior descriptions which are strong job-desirable and extremely infrequent or high frequency were collected and rewritten into 114 items. Second, trained raters rated the desirability and occur-probability of these items and selected 50 items for the draft scale. Third, an experimental study was conducted with 679 subjects to further select items. Subjects were paid for 20 RMB if they successfully faked in simulated selection situations. As a result, 20 items which sufficiently measure faking and are not contaminated by Self-Deception remained in the scale. Forth, principal component analysis was used to examine the construct validity of this scale. Results showed the first factor explained 55% of the total variance. Fifth, multivariate generalization theory was used to study the optimal number of items included in the scale. The results showed that when 10 items remained in the Faking Detection Scale, the scale has good reliability, with G=0.823 and φ=0.818. Sixth, the scale’s validity was further examined using logistic regression. The CoxSnell R Square and Nagelkerke R Square were .386 and .468, repectively. These results showed that the scale was valid and can effectively detect faking candidates. However, there is a dilemma when setting the cut-off score, because it is impossible to decrease the false judgment and false selection rate at the same time. Results from this study showed that setting up higher cut-off score to detect serious faking candidates and exclude unqualified candidates using select-out mode can help organization make valid recruitment decisions and accomplish personnel selection goals. Finally, this scale’s validity was verified in real occupational selection situations with 234 subjects. Faking Detection Scale (effect size was 1.163) is far more sensitive than personality scale (the largest effect size was .767) and can more effectively measure faking effect. This scale has been validated and can effectively detect faking candidates in real occupational selection situations. By exploring the quality of items, it is found that most faking detection items described common behaviors in daily life and repeatedly emphasized in work-settings. Subjects showed a high consciously inflation on these items when they were faking; when faking did not happen, they would unconsciously exaggerate the reaction to a less extent because of Self-Deception. So the scale could sufficiently measure faking effect with less contaminative by Self-Deception. As a conclusion, this study differentiated faking from SDR and developed a scale to detect faking. This scale has 20 items which is very sensitive to faking. Its validity was verified in simulative and one real occupational selection situation. More studies are needed to further explore whether this scale can be applied to varied situations.

Truth, lies or self-deception? Striatal D 2/3 receptor availability predicts individual differences in social conformity

Previous positron emission tomography (PET) studies have consistently shown a negative association between striatal D 2/3 receptor availability and socially desirable responding (SDR). However, as SDR is a complex personality trait, the functional significance of this relationship is unclear. The aim of the present study was to determine whether the relationship between D 2/3 receptor availability and SDR reflects a tendency to present oneself positively to others, consistent with social conformity (impression management, IM), or the tendency to view one's own behavior positively (self-deceptive enhancement, SDE). Striatal D 2/3 receptor availability was assessed in 23 healthy volunteers using [ 11C]raclopride PET. SDR was assessed using the Lie scale of the revised Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, and IM and SDE were measured using the Paulhus Deception Scales. Analysis of personality variables revealed a positive relationship between Lie and log IM ( r = 0.64, p = 0.01) but not Lie and SDE ( r = −0.36, ns). Consistent with previous findings, Lie was negatively associated with D 2/3 receptor availability in the sensorimotor striatum ( r = − 0.55, p = 0.05), and a similar trend–level relationship was observed for log IM ( r = −0.54 p = 0.06) but not SDE ( r = 0.23, ns). Whilst these associations are modest, results suggest that striatal D 2/3 receptor availability may be particularly associated with social conformity, rather than self-deception.

Socially Desirable Response Tendencies in Survey Research

Socially desirable responding (SDR) has been of long-standing interest to the field of marketing. Unfortunately, the construct has not always been well understood by marketing researchers. The authors provide a review of the SDR literature organized around three key issues—the conceptualization and measurement of SDR; the nomological constellation of personality traits, values, sociodemographics, and cultural factors associated with SDR; and the vexing issue of substance versus style in SDR measures. The authors review the current “state of the literature,” identify unresolved issues, and provide new empirical evidence to assess the generalizability of existing knowledge, which is disproportionately based on U.S. student samples, to a global context. The new evidence is derived from a large international data set involving 12,424 respondents in 26 countries on four continents.

Religiosity as Self-Enhancement: A Meta-Analysis of the Relation Between Socially Desirable Responding and Religiosity

In a meta-analysis, the authors test the theoretical formulation that religiosity is a means for self-enhancement. The authors operationalized self-enhancement as socially desirable responding (SDR) and focused on three facets of religiosity: intrinsic, extrinsic, and religion-as-quest. Importantly, they assessed two moderators of the relation between SDR and religiosity. Macro-level culture reflected countries that varied in degree of religiosity (from high to low: United States, Canada, United Kingdom). Micro-level culture reflected U.S. universities high (Christian) versus low (secular) on religiosity. The results were generally consistent with the theoretical formulation. Both macro-level and micro-level culture moderated the relation between SDR and religiosity: This relation was more positive in samples that placed higher value on religiosity (United States > Canada > United Kingdom; Christian universities > secular universities). The evidence suggests that religiosity is partly in the service of self-enhancement.

Effects of self‐enhancement on agreement on personality profiles

Effects of self‐enhancement and socially desirable responding (SDR) on rater agreement for personality profiles were studied in 304 students. Dyads of participants described themselves and their peer on the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO‐PI‐R) that measures 30 facets of personality. In addition, participants filled in six scales measuring self‐enhancement or SDR. Data analyses focussed on moderator and suppressor effects of SDR on the similarity between self‐reported and other reported NEO‐PI‐R profiles. Three kinds of profile agreement were distinguished: (a) normative agreement; (b) distinctive agreement and (c) profile normativeness, that is, how strongly a self‐reported personality profile resembled the average profile of all participants. There were no moderator or suppressor effects on distinctive agreement, but SDR predicted profile normativeness quite strongly. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

ORIGINAL RESEARCH—PSYCHOLOGY: Condom Use for Penile–Vaginal Intercourse is Associated with Immature Psychological Defense Mechanisms

Freud opined that condom use during penile-vaginal intercourse (PVI), like sexual activities other than PVI, led to a detrimental effect on orgasm that fueled the neuroses. Although this hypothesis had not been empirically tested, Freud's hypothesis that inability to have a (PVI) vaginal orgasm is a sign of psychological immaturity has recently received empirical support. The objective is to examine the hypotheses that use of immature psychological defense mechanisms correlates directly with frequency of condom use during PVI, but inversely with frequency of PVI without condoms. An additional aim is to examine the independent contributions of frequency of PVI with and without condoms, and different triggers of orgasm, in predicting the use of immature defense mechanisms. Two hundred ten Portuguese participants (99 women) reported their frequency of PVI with and without condoms, and frequency of orgasms from different sexual activities during the preceding month, and also completed the Defense Style Questionnaire (DSQ-40). The association of DSQ-40 immature defenses (correlated with indices of psychopathology) with past month frequency of PVI with and without condoms, and orgasms from different sexual behaviors. Frequency of PVI with condoms correlated directly with use of immature defenses. Frequency of PVI without condoms correlated inversely with use of immature and neurotic defenses. Results were not confounded by relationship status, age, cohabitation, or social desirability responding. Regression analyses revealed that immature defenses were independently predicted by condom use for PVI and by masturbation orgasms (for both sexes). For women additional predictors were lack of vaginal orgasm, and orgasm from clitoral masturbation during PVI. The results are consistent with condom use during PVI being associated with psychological immaturity and predisposition to poorer mental health.

Prosocial and Antisocial Behaviors in Adolescents: An Investigation into Associations with Attachment and Empathy

ABSTRACTThe normal development of empathy has been proposed to be imperative to the healthy emotional and social functioning of youths. In contrast, compromised levels of empathy have been linked to an increased propensity to engage in antisocial behaviors, including animal cruelty. Previous findings have revealed parent attachment to be intrinsically linked to the development of empathy. This association has been shown to play a role in predicting the expression of various outcome behaviors, including both those which are prosocial in nature, and those which are antisocial, and potentially aggressive. This study examines these associations in a sample of 281 12- to 18-year-old students. The aims included the investigation of the direct predictive roles played by attachment and empathy for prosocial and antisocial behaviors directed at both humans and animals. We also investigated the mediating role played by empathy in these relationships. Attachment and empathy significantly predicted prosocial and antisocial behaviors, both individually, and in combination. Furthermore, empathy was found to serve a mediating role in the associations between attachment and: human-directed prosocial behavior, the humane treatment of animals, and animal cruelty. These findings expand upon existing literature by demonstrating that it is, at least partially, through empathy that attachment to parents predicts prosocial and antisocial behaviors during adolescence. This is in contrast to the direction of relationships implied by some previous findings and proposals, which have suggested that treating animals humanely fosters the normal development of empathy, for example. Notwithstanding the promising findings revealed by the current study, we recommend that replicating this research using a larger sample will assist in addressing the limited generalizability identified in the current study. It is further proposed that the use of a lie scale could limit the influence of social desirability responding. Future research is also needed to determine the direction of the demonstrated relationships.

Vaginal Orgasm Is Associated with Less Use of Immature Psychological Defense Mechanisms

Freud implied a link between inability to have a vaginal orgasm and psychosexual immaturity. Since Kinsey, many sexologists have asserted that no such link exists. However, empirical testing of the issue has been lacking. The objective was to determine the relationship between different sexual behavior triggers of female orgasm and use of immature psychological defense mechanisms. Women reported their past month frequency of different sexual behaviors and corresponding orgasm rates and completed the Defense Style Questionnaire (DSQ-40). The association between ability to have vaginal intercourse orgasm (versus clitoral orgasm) and the use of DSQ-40 immature psychological defense mechanisms (associated with various psychopathologies) was examined. In a sample of 94 healthy Portuguese women, vaginal orgasm (triggered solely by penile-vaginal intercourse) was associated with less use of DSQ-40 immature defenses. Vaginal orgasm was associated with less somatization, dissociation, displacement, autistic fantasy, devaluation, and isolation of affect. Orgasm from clitoral stimulation or combined clitoral-intercourse stimulation was not associated with less use of immature defenses, and was associated with more use of some immature defenses. In one regression analysis, more masturbation and less vaginal orgasm consistency made independent contributions to the statistical prediction of immature defenses. In another regression analysis, any use of extrinsic clitoral stimulation for intercourse orgasm, and lack of any vaginal orgasm, made independent contributions to the statistical prediction of immature defenses. Vaginally anorgasmic women had immature defenses scores comparable to those of established (depression, social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder) outpatient psychiatric groups. Results were not confounded by social desirability responding or relationship quality. The results linking penile-vaginal orgasm with less use of immature psychological defense mechanisms are consistent with both early psychoanalytic personality theory and recent advances in sexual physiology. Implications for diagnosis and sex therapy are noted.