Social Council Research Articles

Unleashing the Power of Civil Society: Examining the Impact of the Saudi Green Building Forum in Advancing Eco-friendly Construction in Saudi Arabia

This paper delves into the role of civil society in propelling green building practices, one key to a sustainable future. It focuses on the Saudi Green Building Forum (SGBF) “in Consultative Status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council, since 2017” as a case study that illuminates how civil society organizations contribute to environmental stewardship, social equity, and economic prosperity in the construction sector. The concept of green building is traced from its origins through its global development, explicitly emphasizing notable examples from Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries and Saudi Arabia. The paper reassures the audience by outlining the unique and robust alignment of SGBF’s initiatives and its support for the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), underscoring its commitment to global sustainability. The study presents a descriptive analysis based on desktop research, illustrating the transformative impact of civil society in promoting sustainable construction practices through the SGBF. Key aspects covered include the historical evolution of the green building movement, successful implementations of green building standards, and the activation of civil society institutions and organizations in driving sustainability. The paper showcases SGBF’s strategies and projects as exemplary models of civil society’s contribution to greening the built environment and fostering a sustainable future in Saudi Arabia and beyond. The objective is to inspire by highlighting civil society’s far-reaching impact on the construction sector’s environmental, social, and economic dimensions of sustainable development.

Human rights in education implication schema based on the study of the UN Economic and Social Council’s 2030 agenda

Human rights in education are an essential area that needs to be the highest priority for improving almost the entire world, especially for the 2030 agenda. This research analyzed the human rights in education values inside the UN Economic and Social Council’s declaration goal 4 of the official document entitled “Building back better from the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) while advancing the full implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development”. The data are analyzed through a critical discourse approach in qualitative design and discourse organization analysis method. There are nine main human rights in education found inside the declaration including ensuring and protecting education equality, education, and learning development acceleration, preparing and providing sufficient education funding, cultural diversity in education, providing a safe environment for physical and mental health, providing safe, modern and convenient infrastructure and teaching-learning facilities, gender equality in education, internet literacy in education, involving every country as to the world’s global meeting and cooperation of education. The focus of improvement on human rights in education is concluded to be dynamic, which is influenced by economic, welfare, politics, IT, and other integral aspects of development and depends on the world’s and a country’s needs and future desire.

Peran World Trade Organization (WTO) dalam Menyelesaikan Sengketa Dagang Antara Uni Eropa dan Indonesia Terkait Kebijakan Pelarangan Ekspor Mineral Mentah Nikel

The background of this research is the WTO as an international trade organisation under the economic and social council is authorised to regulate international trade as well as resolve international trade disputes. As for nickel as a potential raw mineral material in terms of economic value and a source of world electricity, it then became an issue when Indonesia issued a policy to ban the export of nickel raw minerals. The purpose of this research is to find out the implications of Indonesia's nickel export ban on international trade, and to find out the WTO dispute settlement system in the nickel case between Indonesia and the European Union. This type of research uses descriptive analysis research that describes the results of the author's analysis. The result of this research is that there are 2 (two) types of implications of Indonesia's defeat of the European Union's lawsuit related to the ban on exports of nickel raw materials, namely legal implications which can be in the form of imposing an obligation to pay losses to the plaintiff and non-legal implications, namely disrupting the downstream of nickel mining in Indonesia.

Assessment Of Gender-Based Violence In The City Of Ibadan, Oyo State, Southwest Nigeria

Introduction Gender-based violence (GBV) is a significant public health issue globally, with the World Health Organization (WHO) describing it as any behavior within an intimate relationship that includes physical aggression, sexual coercion, psychological abuse, and controlling behaviors. The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) describes GBV as any harmful act committed against a person’s will based on gender differences. GBV is recognized as a contemporary human rights concern affecting millions globally, with women and girls making up most victims. However, men and boys are also affected, though their victimization is less acknowledged, particularly due to societal perceptions of masculinity. The consequences of GBV, whether physical or psychological, are severe and can include exposure to HIV, sexually transmitted infections, unwanted pregnancies, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and depression. WHO statistics indicate that 35% of women globally have experienced intimate partner violence or non-partner sexual violence, revealing the widespread nature of the issue. Purpose: This study aimed to assess the prevalence and trends of gender-based violence in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. Oyo State is the fifth most populous state in Nigeria, with a GBV prevalence rate of 7.6%. By 2021, 17.1% of women in Oyo State had experienced physical violence since the age of 15. The study also seeks to explore GBV among men, adolescents, and pregnant women, as well as the help-seeking behaviors of victims and the response of healthcare providers in Ibadan. Method: A quantitative, descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted, using semi-structured questionnaires hosted on Kobocollect. The research covered the 11 Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Ibadan. Data analysis was performed using SPSS Version 29, with inferential statistics used to test associations between categorical variables. Logistic regression was also employed to identify independent factors of GBV, with a statistical significance level set at p < 0.05. Results: The study included 13,841 participants, comprising 2,388 pregnant women, 2,027 non-pregnant women, 4,452 adolescents, 3,688 adult men, and 1,286 healthcare providers. Among adult women, younger age groups (20-29 years) were less likely to experience GBV compared to older women. Women who were employed or had higher educational attainment were less likely to be at risk. Pregnant women aged 30-39 had a higher likelihood of experiencing GBV, while women aged 50 and above had a lower risk. Among men, younger males were more likely to experience GBV threats, with 7.1% reporting physical violence from their partners. Adolescents, particularly those aged 10-14 years, were at a higher risk of GBV compared to older adolescents. Employment status was also a significant factor, with unemployed adolescents reporting higher rates of GBV. Additionally, 22% of health facilities reported GBV cases in the past six months, with primary health centers being the most common point of care. However, there were gaps in knowledge among healthcare workers, with most failing to identify the different forms of GBV. Conclusion: Age, employment status, education level, and partner’s behavior (such as alcohol consumption) were significant factors influencing GBV risks in Ibadan. The findings suggest gaps in the knowledge of healthcare providers and limited long-term support for survivors of GBV. While most facilities reported cases among women, there were fewer reports of GBV among men, highlighting the need for more attention to this issue

Legislative Challenges of Application of Restorative Justice Practices in The Criminal Courts of Iraq

Restorative justice does not only aim to impose harsher punishment on criminals and defend the victims’ justice, but rather it works in a balanced manner to distribute roles between the victim and the accused in order to restore the damage that befell the victim and those around him. It also works to hold the offender responsible for this according to the order of the Imam. Society. The Economic and Social Council in Vienna stipulated in 2002 that the criminal case should be transferred to restorative justice institutions before being considered by the criminal court. The question raised here are: What are the legal challenges that hinder the application of restorative justice in the Iraqi criminal courts? To answer this question, and through collecting opinions and decisions, it is noted that conciliation is the only form taken by the Iraqi criminal courts as an aspect of restorative justice. However, it faces many challenges that prevent the judge from expanding to cover a large number of crimes, the most important of which are the inflexibility of legal texts and the inflation in Punitive legislation and the failure of laws to keep pace with developments. Added to these challenges are existing laws that focus largely on custodial penalties and restrict the possibility of applying restorative justice. Also, social and cultural norms, such as tribal customs, play a role in out-of-court reconciliation, requiring updating laws to align with these norms and further strengthening the application of restorative justice within the Iraqi judicial system. In short, Iraqi laws are still insufficient to effectively implement restorative justice programs, and criminal mediation has not yet been provided for, despite its importance and actual practice by Iraqi society in resolving disputes.

Coca in history and the future

Purpose This study aims to question the psychiatric framework currently adopted by governments toward the traditional plants of great cultures, stigmatized by the paradigm of the unfounded psychiatric doctrine and to propose the need for a change of outlook. Design/methodology/approach Documentary research of the “black history” of coca. Documentary research on academic contributions to the revaluation of coca. Findings This brief chronicle of the coca leaf in history, duly documented, proves that its medicinal and energetic prestige was proven and praised by the naturalistic and experimental medicine of the 19th century, a precedent buried by the psychiatric pathologizing version that invented “drug addictions” without any experimental support. Research limitations/implications Psychiatry can be revealed as the authoritarian and unpunished inquisition of the 20th century, in its arbitrary pathologizing version of coca leaf consumption and in most of its professional work. A scientific revolution is taking place (Kuhn, 1962), given that the psychopathological paradigm does not respond to the facts surrounding coca leaf consumption and virtues. The medical perspective must replace the negative psychiatric perspective that the law maintains Practical implications The author concludes that the way out would be to denounce before the Social and Economic Council of the United Nations, with evidence in hand, the fraud in the 1950 UN Commission on Coca Report, due to concealment on information. Social implications Taking advantage of the hygienic and medicinal virtues of plants stigmatized by psychiatry, such as the coca leaf, would put an end to an omnipresent war and give way to peace in the producing areas. Originality/value The questioning of the psychiatric frame of reference adopted by governments to deal with coca leaf consumption has led to the “war on drugs.”

The role of the UN institutional mechanism in ensuring ecological energy

The UN occupies a key place in the system of international organizations, coordinating international cooperation on a wide range of issues of international life. Accordingly, it is not surprising that its role is also important in the regulation of ecological energy.
 The ecological energy sector has become one of the relatively new spheres of international law development. It covers the aspects of renewable energy sources, alternative fuels, ecologically safe mechanisms of using fossil fuels that do not cause excessive damage to the environment.
 Since the 1950s, the UN Economic and Social Council was the first to raise the issue of «new energy sources» in its documents, among which renewable sources were also distinguished. It also initiated the first scientific conference on RES.
 Later, the General Assembly and the UN Security Council joined the process, the first of which initiated the annual holding of UN international conferences on renewable energy sources, and annually adopted resolutions to support RES in the world. In the future, by creating auxiliary bodies, they promoted ecological energy within the framework of sustainable development, such as the High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development. The UN Security Council mainly considers energy issues in their connection with aspects of peace and security, for example, in the field of energy security, or bodies responsible for violations.
 Specialized institutions of the UN system also take an active part in the implementation of the concept of ecologically oriented energy. Suffice it to mention that the Kyoto Protocol of 1997 authorized the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and ICAO to establish sectoral requirements for countering greenhouse gas emissions in accordance with their competence. For ten years, UNESCO acted as the head of the World Solar Program, contributing to the implementation of Kharar Declaration on Solar Energy and Sustainable Development of 1996.
 FAO, as an organization dealing with issues of food and agriculture, has focused its attention on such a segment of renewable energy as the implementation of bioenergy programs. UNIDO focused on energy issues as the basis of sustainable industrial development. It prioritizes three aspects of energy: rural energy for production purposes with an emphasis on the use of RES, energy efficiency and climate change.
 Accordingly, within the framework of the UN, a rather extensive system of bodies and organizations has been created, which are engaged in the implementation of the tasks of ecologically oriented energy. Unfortunately, all these bodies do not have the corresponding specialized competences; they solve these tasks only within the limits of their own competence. Also, currently there is no single body for coordinating the tasks of EOE within the framework of the UN system.

Macro-Regional Patterns of CSO Affiliation/Participation within the UN-Civil-Society Framework: The Underrepresentation of the Developing World

The United Nations Integrated Civil Society database was utilized in empirical case studies of UN-affiliated civil society organizations (CSOs) in a spatial comparison as to whether they were headquartered in developed or developing nations. The purpose was to gauge plurality/proportionality in the representation of CSOs by world region within the UN-Economic and Social Council consultative status program. Findings indicate substantial variation in regional representation of CSOs within the UN consultative status framework with developed regions represented to a greater degree proportionate to their populations. Both Africa and Asia were underrepresented relative to their proportions of global population. The findings challenge perceptions that the UN relationship with civil society reflects regional pluralism as reflected via proportional representation.

Quantifying fair income distribution in Thailand.

Given a vast concern about high income inequality in Thailand as opposed to empirical findings around the world showing people's preference for fair income inequality over unfair income equality, it is therefore important to examine whether inequality in income distribution in Thailand over the past three decades is fair, and what fair inequality in income distribution in Thailand should be. To quantitatively measure fair income distribution, this study employs the fairness benchmarks that are derived from the distributions of athletes' salaries in professional sports which satisfy the concepts of distributive justice and procedural justice, the no-envy principle of fair allocation, and the general consensus or the international norm criterion of a meaningful benchmark. By using the data on quintile income shares and the income Gini index of Thailand from the National Social and Economic Development Council, this study finds that, throughout the period from 1988 to 2021, the Thai income earners in the bottom 20%, the second 20%, and the top 20% receive income shares more than the fair shares whereas those in the third 20% and the fourth 20% receive income shares less than the fair shares. Provided that there are infinite combinations of quintile income shares that can have the same value of income Gini index but only one of them is regarded as fair, this study demonstrates the use of fairness benchmarks as a practical guideline for designing policies with an aim to achieve fair income distribution in Thailand. Moreover, a comparative analysis is conducted by employing the method for estimating optimal (fair) income distribution representing feasible income equality in order to provide an alternative recommendation on what optimal (fair) income distribution characterizing feasible income equality in Thailand should be.

Threats and opportunities through the lens of civic and social council stakeholders in Madrid’s World Heritage urban cultural landscape

ABSTRACT The support and participation of local stakeholders in tourism development and the conservation of World Heritage Sites is a fundamental requisite for the sustainable management of World Heritage Sites in urban destinations. This work aims to analyse the threats and opportunities posed by the declaration of World Heritage by UNESCO of the Cultural Landscape of the City of Madrid in July 2021 from the perspective of local stakeholders. The declaration is linked to creating an organization for debate and drafting proposals called the ‘Civic and Social Council,’ made up of different stakeholders associated with the declared zone (organizations, professional associations, and neighbourhood associations, among others) intending to work, pool resources, and join forces to protect this area. The study integrates three theories, Social Exchange Theory, Integrated Threat Theory and Social Identity Theory. From these theoretical bases, this paper proposes a new theoretical framework where the three complementary approaches are integrated. By conducting a qualitative study based on in-depth interviews with stakeholders and a roundtable discussion with heritage experts, attitudes towards tourism and the threat variables are identified.

Consider the Base for Representation at the Top: Political Parties and Women’s Parliamentary Representation in Ghana’s Fourth Republic

Abstract: In a democracy, political parties play significant roles in candidate recruitment and selection. While several activities of political parties focusing on boosting women’s representation in Ghana’s Fourth Republic have been examined in the literature, this study expands that discussion. It notes that political parties have pursued various strategies to increase women’s political representation; however, after three decades of Ghana’s Fourth Republic, parliamentary seats occupied by women fall short of the minimum 30 percent level suggested by the UN Economic and Social Council resolution 1990/15. This suggests that perhaps Ghana is not doing enough. Using a qualitative research approach, this study argues that political parties must pursue women’s recruitment with greater proactiveness from the basic unit of their political structure, the polling station or branch executives’ level. This could encourage more female participation and influence the outcome of primary elections.

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVING MANAGEMENT AND REGULATION OF THE RAIL TRANSPORT SECTOR IN INDONESIA: PERSPECTIVE FROM THE INDUSTRY 4.0 CONCEPT

Objective: The research aims to uncover the causes of train accidents in Indonesia beyond those identified by experts and proposes solutions for inclusion in the regulations and standard operating procedures of the Indonesian Railways Company. Theoretical Framework: The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), operating under the UN Economic and Social Council since its establishment in 1947, has introduced the Industry 4.0 concept, titled 'Increasing the Competitiveness of Transportation between Europe and Asia: European Union Rail R&I. This concept incorporates three crucial indicators known as ACT (Aging, Climate Change, and Technology), aligned with the Railway Sustainable Development Goals. Method: This research employs a qualitative approach, gathering data through in-depth interviews using purposive sampling. Interview reviews are presented in the results section. The study involved 28 participants, focusing on the cities of Palembang and Lampung, situated on the tip of the island of Sumatra, bordering the island of Java. Results and Conclusions: The study identified seven themes for inclusion: The development of Railways in Indonesia; Organizational strengths and weaknesses; Human resources; Infrastructure; Operational aspects; Causal factors in train accidents, and Future solutions and contributions to regulation. These were then simplified into three themes following UNECE guidelines. Notably, the main issues with freight trains, primarily used for coal transportation, include an inadequate number of carriages, damage to rails and train sleepers, and excessive cargo loads, leading to frequent train derailments and accidents. The law regulates general provisions for rail freight transportation, but violations are common, and sanctions are minimal due to the state-owned nature of the managing company. Research Implications: This study suggests measures to enhance regulations and Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) for the Indonesian Railways Company, including adapting regulations and SOPs to improve the operational safety of goods trains. This involves modernizing signaling systems and addressing human errors, particularly during night shifts. Recommendations also cover optimizing single-path and double-path routes, proposing regulations for the adaptation of automatic control systems, and improving the Grade of Automation (GOA). Ensuring the safety of personnel, especially operators and machinists, is emphasized. Originality/Value: This research explores the paradigm shift within Indonesia Railways, transitioning from GOA 0 to GOA 1. Anticipated to significantly impact the safety of goods (coal) trains, this study offers profound insight into the evolution of transportation governance for freight transport by rail. Both the government and Indonesia Railways can consider integrating these findings into regulations or SOPs, despite facing challenges such as funding constraints and the high cost associated with upgrading to GOA 2 infrastructure.

Rural Depopulation in Spain: A Delphi Analysis on the Need for the Reorientation of Public Policies

In recent years, various plans have been implemented by the central government with the aim of promoting more coordinated policies to address depopulation. The severity of this challenge in Spain, which has continued to intensify, underscores the need for more decisive action. The information presented in this research is derived from a survey conducted in two rounds with 35 experts in the field, following the Delphi methodology. The general objective was to assess the opinions of an expert panel on relevant aspects concerning policies to combat depopulation in Spain. Firstly, confirming the significance of the depopulation challenge; secondly, evaluating whether the actions taken so far have been insufficient and poorly coordinated, necessitating a reconsideration; and finally, establishing a prioritization of actions that should be implemented without further delay, encompassing various areas (financing, taxation, coordination, etc.), are among the many measures advocated by the Spanish Federation of Municipalities and Provinces (FEMP) and proposed in the recent diagnoses by highly authoritative institutions such as the Bank of Spain or the Economic and Social Council of Spain (CES).

Contribution of the Declaration of Universal Human Rights in the Empowerment of Human rights: A legal study

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 seeks to strengthen international peace and security by giving international status to human rights as well as by codifying them and indicating their various importance. Various provisions of the United Nations Charter are neutral in the protection of human rights, which, with the help of the Economic, Social Council and the Human Rights Committee, makes every possible effort to keep human rights accessible and universally accepted. Human rights relate to the freedom of every individual.

Sustainable CSR Approach in Mitigating Industrial Disaster/Accidents in India

Abstract: The Economic and Social Council of the UN in its 45th session raised a concern about the environment and moved a resolution on this subject to intensify the urgent action at the national as well as international levels. Stock Holm Conference on Human & Environment again emphasized the issue of the environment and the suffering of poor people. It recommended the participating countries to make necessary arrangements in their countries to sustain the environment and development. The significance of environment and development made the UN General Assembly 1983 to establish the World Commission on Environment and Development. It submitted its report in 1987. Where the word sustainable development is coined and defined. Principle 1 of the Rio de Janeiro Declaration of 1992 used the word sustainable development. In order to meet the international obligations to achieve the sustainable development goal, respective countries adopted sustainable practices and policies. Business operation is very often associated with hazardous operations. This leads to industrial accidents and caused personal injury and property damages. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is one such policy that is introduced in the 21st-century Business ethic and practice. In India, CSR is comprehensively dealt with in the Company Act, 2013. In this present research paper, the authors have studied the sustainable CSR approach to mitigate the industrial disaster for effective implementation of the Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991.

Foreign Linkage of Insurgent’s Groups in the North East India: A study on National Social Council of Nagaland and United Liberation Front of Assam

This study looks at the complex networks of foreign assistance, drug and weapon smuggling, and insurgency activity in Northeast India, especially in the states of Assam and Nagaland. It draws attention to the important role that outside parties, such as intelligence services and nearby nations, play in maintaining these illicit activities. Examined are China's ties to Pakistan and its role in backing rebel organizations in the area. Illustrative instances include the division within the Naga movement, smuggling routes, and the recent arm seizures in Bangladesh. To improve security and stability in Northeast India, addressing these issues calls for regional collaboration, intelligence sharing, and initiatives to stop the trafficking in illegal weapons and drugs.

O Conselho de Comunicação Social como símbolo da luta pela participação no debate regulatório em Comunicação

This article discusses the Social Communication Council, linked to the Federal Senate, as a symbol of the search for greater social participation in decision-making processes in the field of communication, as a collegiate body in clear dispute for space, definition and continuity since its creation. From the Political Economy of Communication and the Anthropology of State processes, the council is understood as a place of representative listening to civil society since the 1988 constituent. Through a documentary ethnography of the body's archives, we seek problematize the representation of civil society and follow the discursive web around the collegiate itself, aiming to problematize its representative structure, power asymmetries perceived and consider its capacity and scope of action.

What can we learn from administrative benefits data?

We present the opportunities and limitations of administrative benefits data held by local authorities for data linkage projects. Whilst the richness of this data has been exploited by practitioners for administration, its potential remains little explored by researchers. We discuss data quality, sample selection and legal gateways for data sharing.
 Drawing on our experience working with over 40 local authorities, we present the structure of three datasets: the Council Tax Reduction Scheme, the Single Housing Benefits Extract and the Universal Credit Data Share. We show what variables are usually included, under which legal gateways this data can be shared and how the cohorts represented within the data compare with the low-income population. We discuss how these datasets can be linked at the household level with a number of other data held by local authorities such as social rent and Council Tax arrears, Housing Benefit overpayments and Discretionary Housing Payments (DHPs).
 Administrative benefits data provides a comprehensive snapshot of a household’s financial situation. Local authorities can proactively use and share this data with external data processors to fulfil their statutory duties if a legal gateway allows. By identifying households at risk of cash shortfalls before they reach a crisis point, councils can target support when administering local welfare schemes and preventing homelessness. By assessing eligibility for benefits, they can run data-driven uptake campaigns. This data captures a proportion of the population on national and local benefits within a local authority at several points in time. Attrition is of concern since households may leave datasets over time. Some will see their income rise and no longer qualify for benefits. Others will move out of the constituency.
 Local authorities routinely process longitudinal data on households receiving means-tested benefits by administering housing benefits, council tax support, and discretionary support funds. This data provides a unique real-time insight into the socioeconomic situation of low-income households. Yet, we show that its promising potential for policy research remains largely untapped.

Institutionalizing Populist Power Coalitions in Latin America: Argentina’s Economic and Social Council and Brazil’s Council for Economic and Social Development

The Argentine Consejo Económico y Social (Economic and Social Council) and the Brazilian Conselho de Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social (Council for Economic and Social Development) are institutions promoted by populist governments to shape a neodevelopmentalist agenda in countries classified as having hierarchical market economies. Both councils only partially conform to the hierarachical market economy model and have suffered from heavy governmental dependence, but Argentine unionism may constitute a potential success factor for the institution in the future. This influence represents an exception to the theory of these economies. El Consejo Económico y Social de Argentina y el Conselho de Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social de Brasil son instituciones promovidas por gobiernos populistas para dar pie a una agenda neodesarrollista en países clasificados como de economías de mercado jerárquicas. Ambos consejos se ajustan sólo parcialmente al modelo jerárquico de la economía de mercado y han sufrido una fuerte dependencia gubernamental. Sin embargo, el sindicalismo argentino podría constituir un potencial factor de éxito para la institución en el futuro. Dicha influencia constituye una excepción a la teoría de estas economías.

Cross-Movement Strike Actions: Works Council and Communist Groups at the Bremer Vulkan Shipyard in the 1970s

Abstract Beginning in the early 1970s, various communist groups decided to become active at the Bremer Vulkan shipyard. The article shows that they did not immediately go for confrontation to older trade union structures but were willing to change the movement from within. With the support of a wildcat strike at the shipyard in 1973, the New Left raised the question of alternatives. As a result, the Social Democratic works council chairman resigned because of a lack of support from his colleagues, and in 1974 some communists were elected to the works council. I argue that there was no division into old and new but rather a diverse field of actors: a disparate group of workers with different occupational status, and political approaches; works councils and shop stewards with close ties to Bremen’s Social Democracy; and various communist groups that pursued very different policies and goals, sometimes joined forces, but basically fought each other—especially in conflicts—rather than taking joint action.