Social Compensation Hypothesis Research Articles

Social Capital on Facebook

Online relationship formation through social networking sites helps to meet the developmental need for intimacy in emerging adults. Through the use of the rich get richer and the social compensation hypotheses, it is evident that personality characteristics such as extraversion and introversion impact online relationship formation. However, there is a lack of research on the amount of relational benefits, in terms of social capital, accrued from these relationships. This study addressed this issue by examining how the online communication styles of extraverts and introverts mediate the relationship between the personality variables and the accumulation of online social capital. Support for the rich get richer hypothesis was found, with extraversion leading to the accumulation of bonding social capital. This relationship was mediated by the active communication behaviors of extraverts.

Social responses to Facebook status updates: The role of extraversion and social anxiety

Posting, reading, and responding to status updates is an integral part of many peoples' daily lives. However, the role of personality in predicting social responses to status updates remains largely unexplored. Based on the social enhancement and the social compensation hypothesis, we assessed the role of extraversion and social anxiety in predicting social responses to status updates. Moreover, we explored the influence of valence in this context. Capitalizing on the assets of a multimethod approach, personality was assessed with self-reports, and valence was evaluated by independent raters. Social responses to status updates were captured (1) by observing direct social feedback (i.e. likes and commenters) and (2) by informant reports on the interpersonal appraisal of participants’ status updates by their friends. In a German and a US sample, for direct social feedback neither extraversion nor social anxiety emerged as significant predictors. However, analyses of the informant reports showed that status updates of more socially anxious individuals were appreciated more by their friends. Furthermore, results pointed to the importance of valence in this context; revealing associations between valence and direct social feedback, valence and extraversion, and a moderation effect of personality on the association between valence and likes in the US sample.

Predictors of mobilizing online coping versus offline coping resources after negative life events

This exploratory study drew upon the social compensation/social enhancement hypotheses and weak tie network theory to predict what kind of people supplement offline coping resources with online coping resources more than others. Using a large, representative survey the authors found that low self-esteem, lonely, and socially isolated individuals add more online resources to their mix of preferred coping strategies than their counterparts. These groups benefit from the fact that online coping resources are not as strongly entangled with online social ties as are offline coping resources with offline ties, and from the fact that online coping resources can sometimes be mobilized without any social interactions. In contrast to offline coping, the researchers also found that men mobilize more online coping resources than women. The authors discuss the implications of these findings in terms of the social compensation hypothesis and online weak tie networks.

Associations between compulsive internet use and the autism spectrum

The increasingly complex relationship between individuals and online environments has prompted research exploring the potential for compulsive Internet use (CIU) in varying populations. Identification of the determinants of CIU, such as offline social difficulties associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), could clarify whether individuals compensate for offline difficulties through online interactions. In Study 1, 597 undergraduates took an online survey measuring CIU, social symptoms of ASD, restricted interests and repetitive behaviors (RIRB), self-esteem, and Facebook behaviors. A relationship between CIU and autistic traits was attributable to non-social characteristics (RIRB) and a relationship was identified between RIRB and information-seeking behaviors. These results complicate the social compensation hypothesis by suggesting that non-social personality characteristics contribute more strongly to CIU than individuals’ attempts to compensate for offline social challenges. Study 2 matched a sample of students with ASD (n=33) to neurotypical students (n=33) and uncovered no significant differences in CIU scores between the matched samples. These results suggest that findings observed by measuring autistic traits in neurotypical samples may not replicate with autistic samples.

Social Support and Social Anxiety in Use and Perceptions of Online Mental Health Resources: Exploring Social Compensation and Enhancement.

This study used the frameworks of social compensation and social enhancement to examine how social anxiety and social support were related to college students' (N=443) use and perceptions of online mental health resources (Web sites and online support groups). Potential interactions between social support and social anxiety were also examined. Consistent with the social compensation hypothesis, perceived usefulness of Web sites was positively associated with social support. Perceived usefulness of online support groups was positively associated with social support when participants reported average or high, but not low, social anxiety. In contrast, previous use of Web sites was consistent with the social compensation hypothesis. Participants who reported less social support were more likely to have used a Web site for a mental or emotional problem. These findings suggest that college students' use and perceptions of online mental health resources vary as a function of social support and social anxiety, and that patterns suggestive of social compensation and social enhancement depend on whether perceptions or actual use of resources are examined. Combined with the significant interaction between social support and social anxiety on perceived usefulness of online support groups, these findings highlight the potential complexity of social compensation and enhancement phenomena.

Social Media and Social Capital: Introduction to the Special Issue

Social media, especially social network sites (SNS) such as Facebook have grown rapidly in popularity in the last ten years. [...]

Adolescent online romantic relationship initiation: Differences by sexual and gender identification

Data from the national Teen Health and Technology Study of adolescents 13–18 years old (N = 5091) were used to examine online formation of romantic relationships. Results show that lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) and non-LGBTQ adolescents similarly were most likely to have met their most recent boy/girlfriend in the past 12 months at school. However, they differed on many characteristics of romantic relationship initiation, including the extent to which they initiated romantic relationships online. LGBTQ and non-LGBTQ adolescents also differed on level of offline access to potential partners, offline popularity, and numerous other factors possibly related to online relationship initiation (e.g., Internet use and demographic factors). Even after adjusting for differences in these factors, LGBTQ adolescents were more likely than non-LGBTQ adolescents to find boy/girlfriends online in the past 12 months. The results support the rich-get-richer hypothesis as well as the social compensation hypothesis.

ANTECEDENTS OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION MOTIVES ON TWITTER: LONELINESS AND LIFE SATISFACTION

As the sharp distinction between face-to-face communication and mediated interpersonal communication is disappearing, Twitter is now being used for private and public exchanges. This study aims to explore interpersonal communication motives on Twitter in relation to individuals’ social psychological states of loneliness and life satisfaction. Social compensation and social-enhancement hypotheses were considered for the theoretical background. Data were gathered from Twitter users through online surveys. Hierarchical regression analyses on each communication motive on Twitter (pleasure, affection, inclusion, escape, relaxation, and control) were performed. Results revealed that loneliness negatively affected the motives of pleasure and affection, while life satisfaction positively affected the motives of pleasure, affection, relaxation, and control. The implications of these findings and the meaning of Twitter for interpersonal communication are discussed. To cite this document: Yoosun Hwang, "Antecedents of interpersonal communication motives on twitter: Loneliness and life satisfaction", International Journal of Cyber Society and Education, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 49-70, 2014. Permanent link to this document: http://dx.doi.org/10.7903/ijcse.1090

Psychological predictors of addictive social networking sites use: The case of Serbia

The popularity of social networking sites (SNS) changed to a great extent not only media environment, but also everyday life activities of modern humans. Despite their obvious benefits in terms of communication, there is evidence of addictive tendencies in SNS use. The study examined psychological and socio-demographic predictors of these addictive tendencies in Serbian SNS users drawn from a representative sample (N=2014), having in mind that Serbia has Facebook penetration rate over European average. Results indicate a low incidence of self-reported addictive tendencies, with some individual differences worth addressing. We developed and tested exhaustive model that included three sets of predictors (socio-demographic, psychological and exposure to traditional media), as well as restrictive models that systematically excluded group by group. Path analysis revealed that psychological traits were stronger predictors than socio-demographic ones: people with lower self-esteem, lower general self-efficacy and higher introversion were more likely to report addictive SNS use. Although our results in general support the so called “social compensation hypothesis”, it can be due to the focus on addictive tendencies instead of other indicators of SNS use.

Online communication and social well‐being: how playing World of Warcraft affects players' social competence and loneliness

AbstractThis study was designed to examine the effects of playing the online game World of Warcraft (WoW) on adolescents' social competence and loneliness, and to investigate the underlying mechanisms of the Internet‐affected social compensation hypothesis. The hypothesis states that being online affects adolescents' social competence as a result of a variety of communication partners and identity experiments online. A survey was conducted among 790 high school students. There appeared to be no direct effect between playing WoW and adolescents' social competence and loneliness. We did find an indirect effect via variety of communication partners. Adolescents who play WoW vary more in their communication partners, leading to an increase of social competence and a decrease of loneliness.

A mixed method approach to examining Facebook use and its relationship to self-esteem

The current study examined the relationship between self-esteem and Facebook use in sample of college-age participants (N=201). Online methods were used to collect data. Consistent with the social compensation hypothesis, results indicate that self-esteem level was related to engaging in different on-line behaviors. For example, lower self-esteem was associated with feelings of connectedness to Facebook, more frequently untagging oneself in photos, and accepting friend requests from individuals that one does not know well. Qualitative analyses indicated that individuals with higher self-esteem were more likely to report that a positive aspect of Facebook was the ability to share pictures, thoughts, and ideas, and to report that other posts could become annoying or bothersome.

Compensatory internet use among individuals higher in social anxiety and its implications for well-being

The social compensation hypothesis states that the internet primarily benefits individuals who feel uncomfortable communicating face-to-face. In the current research, we tested whether individuals higher in social anxiety use the internet as a compensatory social medium, and whether such use is associated with greater well-being. In Study 1, individuals higher in social anxiety reported greater feelings of comfort and self-disclosure when socializing online than less socially anxious individuals, but reported less self-disclosure when communicating face-to-face. However, in Study 2, social anxiety was associated with lower quality of life and higher depression most strongly for individuals who communicated frequently online. Our results suggest that, whereas social anxiety may be associated with using the internet as an alternative to face-to-face communication, such a strategy may result in poorer well-being.

Social compensation or rich-get-richer? The role of social competence in college students’ use of the Internet to find a partner

Online dating continues to grow rapidly in popularity every day, yet the role of social competence in online dating behavior remains unclear. This study was designed to expand previous research and conduct a comprehensive investigation on how social competence is associated with college students’ online dating behaviors, perceptions, and attitudes. Two hypotheses were tested: The social compensation hypothesis (SCH) —socially incompetent individuals would engage in more online dating, and the rich- get- richer hypothesis (RGRH)—socially competent individuals would use online dating more than their incompetent counterparts. The results showed that incompetent individuals, despite their ability to see benefits in online dating, did not show a favorable attitude towards online dating. They indicated a more frequent use of and a stronger preference for face-to-face dating compared to online dating, which contradicted the SCH. There were weak associations between competence traits and online dating behavior. Socially competent individuals perceived less benefit and showed less interest in online dating, which disconfirmed the RGRH.

Social Anxiety, Motivation, Self-Disclosure, and Computer-Mediated Friendship

This study aims to investigate the mechanisms of individuals’ social interaction with new and existing friends in the blogosphere. It examines not only the direct association between social anxiety and online friendships but also the mediating effects of motivation and self-disclosure on the relation through path analysis. A total of 385 bloggers recruited online responded to the survey questionnaire. The results showed that compared with low socially anxious individuals, those with high social anxiety tended to make fewer new friends, communicated with fewer existing friends via blogs, and had lower relationship quality with those existing friends, but had higher relationship quality with new friends made through blogs. With regard to mediation, the higher the bloggers’ social anxiety, the more motivated they were to make new friends via blogs and the more intimate information they disclosed on their blogs, both of which were, in turn, associated with more new friends and higher quality of new friendships. Interpretations of the findings and implications for understanding the social use of the Internet, especially the competing social compensation hypothesis and rich-get-richer hypothesis, are discussed.

A longitudinal study of the relation between adolescent boys and girls’ computer use with friends and friendship quality: Support for the social compensation or the rich-get-richer hypothesis?

Using computers with friends either in person or online has become ubiquitous in the life of most adolescents; however, little is known about the complex relation between this activity and friendship quality. This study examined direct support for the social compensation and rich-get-richer hypotheses among adolescent girls and boys by including social anxiety as a moderating factor. A sample of 1050 adolescents completed a survey in grade 9 and then again in grades 11 and 12. For girls, there was a main effect of using computers with friends on friendship quality; providing support for both hypotheses. For adolescent boys, however, social anxiety moderated this relation, supporting the social compensation hypothesis. These findings were identical for online communication and were stable throughout adolescence. Furthermore, participating in organized sports did not compensate for social anxiety for either adolescent girls or boys. Therefore, characteristics associated with using computers with friends may create a comfortable environment for socially anxious adolescents to interact with their peers which may be distinct from other more traditional adolescent activities.

Online Communication and Adolescent Social Ties: Who benefits more from Internet use?

Literature suggests 4 hypotheses to explain social outcomes of online communication among adolescents: displacement, increase, rich-get-richer, and social-compensation hypotheses. The present study examines which hypothesis is supported, considering differences in social ties (time vs. quality of social relationships; parent-child relationships; friendships; school connectedness). This study's sample was 1,312 adolescents ages 12 to 18. Displacement hypothesis predicted negative associations between time in online communication and time with parents, but time with friends was not displaced. Examination of relationships among earlier sociability, online communication, and cohesive friendships supported the rich-get-richer hypothesis. That is, adolescents who already had strong social relationships at earlier ages were more likely to use online communication, which in turn predicted more cohesive friendships and better connectedness to school.

The Politics of Economic Adjustment in a Liberal Market Economy: The Social Compensation Hypothesis Revisited

The ‘compensation hypothesis’ holds that increasing trade exposure gives rise to pressures for an expansion in public spending, especially on welfare items. We argue that the underlying relationship between economic openness and public spending and particularly on welfare effort in Ireland shows a surprising consistency that is at odds with this hypothesis. Our preliminary estimates show a persistently weak relationship between trade openness and ‘social compensation’, unlike the experience of other small open economies. We seek to explain these findings with reference to both structural economic constraints and domestic political preferences.

The Faces of Facebookers: Investigating Social Enhancement and Social Compensation Hypotheses; Predicting Facebook™ and Offline Popularity from Sociability and Self-Esteem, and Mapping the Meanings of Popularity with Semantic Networks

This research investigates two competing hypotheses from the literature: 1) the Social Enhancement (“Rich Get Richer”) hypothesis that those more popular offline augment their popularity by increasing it on Facebook™, and 2) the “Social Compensation” (“Poor Get Richer”) hypothesis that users attempt to increase their Facebook™ popularity to compensate for inadequate offline popularity. Participants (n= 614) at a large, urban university in the Midwestern United States completed an online survey. Results are that a subset of users, those more extroverted and with higher self-esteem, support the Social Enhancement hypothesis, being more popular both offline and on Facebook™. Another subset of users, those less popular offline, support the Social Compensation hypotheses because they are more introverted, have lower self-esteem and strive more to look popular on Facebook™. Semantic network analysis of open-ended responses reveals that these two user subsets also have different meanings for offline and online popularity. Furthermore, regression explains nearly twice the variance in offline popularity as in Facebook™ popularity, indicating the latter is not as socially grounded or defined as offline popularity.

Preadolescents' and adolescents' online communication and their closeness to friends.

The 1st goal of this study was to investigate how online communication is related to the closeness of existing friendships. Drawing from a sample of 794 preadolescents and adolescents, the authors found that online communication was positively related to the closeness of friendships. However, this effect held only for respondents who primarily communicated online with existing friends and not for those who mainly talked with strangers. The 2nd goal was to refine 2 opposing hypotheses, the rich-get-richer and the social compensation hypotheses. Consistent with the rich-get-richer hypothesis, socially anxious respondents communicated online less often than did nonsocially anxious respondents. However, socially anxious respondents perceived the Internet as more valuable for intimate self-disclosure than did nonsocially anxious respondents, and this perception in turn led to more online communication. This result is consistent with the social compensation hypothesis. Online communication and closeness to friends increased with age. There was a curvilinear relationship between age and perceived value of the Internet for intimate self-disclosure, such that 15-year-olds were at the epitome of online self-disclosure. Girls were closer to friends and more socially anxious than were boys.

Social loafing and social compensation: The effects of expectations of co-worker performance.

Previous research has suggested that people tend to engage in social loafing when working collectively. The present research tested the social compensation hypothesis, which states that people will work harder collectively than individually when they expect their co-workers to perform poorly on a meaningful task. In 3 experiments, participants worked either collectively or coactively on an idea generation task. Expectations of co-worker performance were either inferred from participants' interpersonal trust scores (Experiment 1) or were directly manipulated by a confederate coworker's statement of either his intended effort (Experiment 2) or his ability at the task (Experiment 3). All 3 studies supported the social compensation hypothesis. Additionally, Experiment 3 supported the hypothesis that participants would not socially compensate for a poorly performing co-worker when working on a task that was low in meaningfulness.