Social Bids Research Articles

Relation Between Maternal Contingent Responsiveness and Infant Social Expectations.

This study investigated the relation between maternal contingent responsiveness and 4- and 5-month-old infants' (N = 64) social expectation behavior in a still-face procedure. Mothers were asked to interact with their infants for 2 min (interactive phase), remain still-faced for 1 min (still-face phase), and resume interaction for 2 min. Mother and infant behavior was assessed for the frequency of infant and mother smiles, mother smiles that were contingent to infant smiles and infant smiles were contingent to mother smiles during the interactive phase, and infant social bids to mother during the still-face phase. Hierarchical regression showed that mother contingent smiles during the interactive phase accounted for unique variance in infant social bids during the still-face phase beyond that accounted for by the frequency of mother and infant smiles during the interactive phase. These results support the view that young infants' social expectations and sense of self-efficacy are formed within their interactions with their caregivers.

Developmentally delayed children's influence attempts with mothers predict interactions with peers over time

We examined whether influence attempts of 4–6 year-old children with mild developmental delays occurring when interacting with their mothers predicted children's interactions with peers two years later. Hierarchical regressions controlling for relevant child characteristics and a measure of direct parental actions to influence their children's peer interactions revealed a consistent association between influence attempts with mothers and four important aspects of children's peer relationships: successful social bids to peers, initiations to peers, extent of involvement with peers, and overall level of peer interactions. Results were consistent with social communicative processes likely to emerge during children's influence attempts with mothers, which are relevant to peer relationships. The fact that influence attempts with mothers were associated with peer interactions over a time period when peers occupy a more dominant role in children's social relationships supports the role of indirect family influences as a potential intervention strategy to further the peer competence of children with delays.

Effects of Circumscribed Interests on the Social Behaviors of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders

This study compared the effects of circumscribed interests (CI) to less preferred (LP) tangible stimuli on the social behaviors of three children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Based on single subject design methodology, the CI experimental sessions resulted in longer durations of target-child initiated social interactions in comparison to LP sessions. In addition, latency of participant's initial social bids to peers was decreased when CI were present. The results suggest that embedding CI into dyadic play situations with typical peers can be used to increase the social behavior children with ASD direct toward typical peers. Future research should examine the specific environmental conditions that must be present in naturalistic settings to facilitate generalization of social behavior.

Recognizing Social Work

There has been little interest until recently in the question of whether social work has the characteristics of an academic discipline. This article offers a synopsis of issues arising from a review of social work and social care research funded through the Social Care Institute for Excellence (SCIE). Following a brief scene setting, the first main section of the article gives a synopsis of the social work and social care community’s experience and judgements regarding their engagement with the research council. In the second part of the article, we review relevant policies, structures and trends from an ESRC and social science perspective. We focus on the development of research programmes, followed by an outline of the delivery and implementation of programmes. In the final section, we review the issues, themes and directions that emerged from the project. These include judgements of research relevance, research users, research utilization, the social work contribution to the development of research methods, inter-disciplinary research, the question of whether there are distinctive attributes of social work research, research capacity, career building, priority setting, and the outcomes of social work funding bids. We also reflect on the development and delivery of research programmes, and the implications of the invisibility of social work research within the ESRC. Disciplines within universities are not fixed and abiding realities. ‘Recognizing’ social work is a dynamic, socially negotiated process, shaped by the construction and ordering of knowledge claims within social work and social science communities, and reflecting power differentials that are mediated through structural mechanisms that tend to exclude new ‘claimants’ such as social work. We include a number of recommendations, and suggest ways in which the issues may have relevance beyond the UK.

Responses and sustained interactions in children with mental retardation and autism.

Sustained interactions and responses to social bids made by children with autism and verbal-age-matched children with mental retardation were recorded in two naturalistic settings. Children with autism produced fewer positive responses and more "no responses" than children with mental retardation; both groups were more likely to make positive responses to adults and not to respond to other children. Furthermore, although the frequency of conversations was not different for the two groups, children with autism were significantly less likely to engage in sustained play compared to children with mental retardation. Results suggest that children with autism are able to master the more rote and need-oriented social skills, such as simple conversation, but may not develop other forms of social interactions, like play.

Teaching social skills to people with autism.

The treatment of social skills deficits remains one of the most challenging areas in meeting the needs of people with autism. Difficulties in understanding social stimuli, in initiating and responding to social bids, and in appreciating the affect that is intrinsic to social interactions can be baffling for people with autism. Researchers and practitioners of applied behavior analysis have tried a variety of strategies for teaching social skills. This article examines a range of useful procedures for teaching social skills to people with autism, including skills that are adult mediated, peer mediated, and child-with-autism mediated. The authors also consider the potential of classwide interventions in inclusive settings, pivotal response training, and the use of scripts to teach social initiations.

Emotional Competence, Emotion Socialization, and Young Children's Peer-Related Social Competence

This study investigated linkages between aspects of emotional competence and preschoolers' social skills with peers. Whether parental emotion socialization practices contributed to the prediction of social skill once emotional competence was statistically controlled was also of interest. Eighty-one predominantly Caucasian preschoolers were videotaped as they participated in three same-sex triadic peer situations. Four peer variables were coded from the videotapes: social initiations, the frequency with which children were the targets of positive social bids, non-constructive anger-related reactions, and prosocial acts. The emotional competence measures included situation knowledge, children's explanations of emotions, positivity of emotional expression during peer play, and emotional intensity. Maternal anger directed at the child was the measure of emotion socialization. Results revealed that the emotional competence variables were meaningfully related to the peer variables and that, for non-constructive anger reactions, maternal reports of anger explained unique variance. Results are discussed in terms of how emotional competence and emotion socialization contribute to peer behavior and the importance of designing and implementing affective intervention programs for young children and their families.

Children with a pervasive developmental disorder, children with a language disorder and normally developing children in situations with high- and low-level involvement of the caregiver.

The social behaviour of low-functioning children with a Pervasive Development Disorder (PDD), high-functioning children with a PDD, children with a Language Disorder (LD) and normally developing children (ND) was investigated in a playroom session while they were interacting with one of their parents. High-functioning children with a PDD were found to differ from the other groups in social responsivity. Low-functioning children with a PDD differed from high-functioning children with a PDD in the total number of social bids, type of social bids, number of looks at parent and social responsivity. When parents structured the behaviour of their children, this resulted in an increase in number of social bids and looks in the low-functioning children with PDD.

Benchmarks of social treatment for children with autism.

Data on the social behavior of typical children may inform practitioners and researchers regarding the appropriate goals of intervention for children with autism. This study assessed the ongoing levels of naturally occurring social behavior in 64 preschool-aged children. A 2 x 2 factorial design was used to analyze population (children with autism and typical children) and age (3 years 3 months vs. 4 years 4 months) differences at the time of preschool entry. Predictable population differences were found for key social behaviors of proximity to children, social bids from children, and focus of engagement on children, as well as for behavioral context variables of verbalizations, adult focus, and atypical behaviors. No differences were found in the amount of time spent focused on toys or objects. There were also no differences in the presenting behaviors of younger and older children with autism. Results are discussed in terms of implications for establishing early social intervention goals.

Variant and invariant high-probability requests: increasing appropriate behaviors in children with emotional-behavioral disorders.

This study examined the effects of variant versus invariant high-probability (high-p) request sequences on the performance of requests to initiate a social bid by young children with emotional-behavioral disorders. In the initial phases of the investigation, a multiple baseline design showed that the delivery of invariant sequences (i.e., high-p requests delivered in the same sequence) produced initial increases in compliance to requests to initiate a social bid to a peer. However, increases were not maintained across the invariant condition. The delivery of variant high-p sequences produced increases in compliance to requests to initiate social bids that were maintained across the variant condition. In a follow-up condition, the number of requests within the pool of the variant and invariant high-p requests were controlled. Results of the follow-up condition replicated those found in the initial condition. Implications for applied use and future research are discussed.

The Peer Relations of Preschool Children with Communication Disorders

The peer-related social interactions of preschool-age children with communication disorders were compared to those of normally developing chronological age-mates. All children were previously unacquainted with one another and participated in a series of short-term play groups. Differences between the 2 groups emerged primarily in terms of overall social activity, as children with communication disorders engaged in fewer positive social interactions and conversed with peers less often during non-play activities. Children with communication disorders also were less successful in their social bids and appeared to be less directive with their peers. However, both groups of children exhibited similar patterns of socially competent interactions including the ability to sustain play (group play), to minimize conflict, to join others in ongoing activities, and to respond appropriately to the social bids of others. Based on peer sociometric ratings, both groups of children were equally accepted. These general patterns of similarities and differences were found in settings in which play groups consisted of all children with communication disorders (specialized settings) as well as in settings in which the play groups included both children with communication disorders and normally developing children (mainstreamed settings). However, even during the relatively brief acquaintanceship process, an analysis of peer preference patterns revealed that children with communication disorders in mainstreamed settings were less socially integrated in the play groups than normally developing children. The potential for additional difficulties in peer interactions for children with communication disorders when children become more familiar with one another and play becomes more intricate was discussed in light of interaction patterns formed during the short-term play groups.

Focused and social attention of autistic children in interactions with familiar and unfamiliar adults: A comparison of autistic, mentally retarded, and normal children

AbstractThis study involved observations of children's behaviors in interactive situations with both familiar and unfamiliar partners. The greatest differences between the autistic and nonautistic children were in an unstructured situation where caregivers did not initiate interactions. In this situation, autistic children rarely looked to the partner or initiated social bids to the partner. They also were less focused on the toys available for play compared to nonautistic children. However, the autistic children were similar in their interactive responses to the partner in an adult-initiated social situation. Individual differences confirmed that more able autistic children in terms of cognitive and language abilities also engaged in greater social and communicative behavior with the partner. These findings suggest that the ways in which social deficits are manifested by autistic children are variable with respect to the context in which they are measured.

The effects of a classroom manager role on the social interaction patterns and social status of withdrawn kindergarten students.

We examined the effects of assigning a classroom manager's role on the frequency of social interactions and the sociometric standing of three withdrawn kindergarten students. Results showed that when the three socially withdrawn students were placed in the manager's role they substantially increased the frequency of their positive social initiations during free-play time, were the recipients of many more positive and significantly fewer negative social bids from their peers, were rated more favorably by their classmates on a sociometric rating scale, and were selected more frequently as best friends by their peers. In addition, follow-up data suggested partial maintenance of treatment effects when students no longer occupied manager positions.

EVALUATION OF THE INTEGRATION OF SEVERELY HANDICAPPED STUDENTS IN REGULAR EDUCATION AND COMMUNITY SETTINGS

ABSTRACTThe Education for All Handicapped Children Act (P. L. 94–142) requires that all children have access to free appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment. As this law is applied to severely handicapped (SH) students, the requirements of an appropriate education may compete with the requirements of education in the least restrictive environment. The question addressed by this report is whether integration of SH students into regular schools can constitute a “least restrictive setting” without seriously compromising the appropriateness of the education offered. This project provided an initial empirical basis for considering the impact of integration in terms of educational improvement of SH students and attitudes of nonhandicapped (NH) students toward the handicapped. In addition, the evaluation was designed to examine factors at various levels of the educational process which might facilitate integration. These factors included information from the state district, school, teacher, and individual student assessments. Subjects were 245 severely handicapped students from 14 school districts located in 9 states. All students were in integrated school or community settings in which nonhandicapped students were present between 3 and 16 hours per week.The criterion for degree of integration was the observed rate of interaction between SH and NH students in schools evaluated. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to determine which information best predicted the rate of interaction between SH and NH students. Subsequently, the rate of interaction between SH and NH students was used to predict the proportion of educational objectives met by SH students. Finally, NH students' attitudes toward the handicapped in schools which were not integrated were compared to NH students' attitudes in integrated schools.Results indicated that severely handicapped students had more social opportunities for interacting with other students in integrated settings in comparison to these same students' opportunities when in segregated settings. NH students responded to more social bids from SH students in comparison to responses by other SH students. The best predictors of social behavior of SH students was the interactive behavior of other students. The rate of social interaction with nonhandicapped students accounted for a statistically significant (p < .025) proportion of objectives met on SH students' Individualized Educational Plans (IEP) when those SH students' functional abilities were statistically controlled as a covariate. NH students in integrated schools had more positive attitudes toward handicapped students in comparison to NH students from nonintegrated schools which were comparable in size, resources and SES. However, when attitudes measured at the beginning of the year were controlled statistically, it was found that NH students in integrated schools had less positive attitudes at the end of the year if SH students interacted more with other SH students when they were in integrated settings.

Biological and social determinants of responsiveness to infants in 10-to-15-year-old girls

Subjects filled out questionnaires and were individually observed interacting with an 8-to-12-month-old infant in a waiting room. Hidden observers recorded the frequency of ignoring, responsiveness to infant bids, and of social bids to the infant. Analyses revealed that older girls ignored more, made fewer bids, and responded less than younger girls did. However, chronological age was highly correlated with measures of biological and social maturity. Multiple regression analyses were used to determine which of these factors best predicted the developmental decline in baby responsiveness. Multiple regressions showed that social maturity was the best predictor of the number of bids to the infant, followed by the development of secondary sex characteristics and menarcheal status (R=.44). Social maturity, babysitting experience, and menarcheal status were the significant predictors of ignoring (R=.48), while menarcheal status, development of secondary sex characteristics, and babysitting experience predicted responsiveness (R=.49). Possible reasons for the decreased interest in infants are discussed, as are the implications for research using baby responsiveness as a measure of sex-role-related changes in adolescence.

Second order effects of peers on mother-toddler interaction

The influence of adult and toddler peers on mother-toddler interaction was investigated in the natural home environment. Toddlers and mothers were observed in four circumstances on four different days: (1) at home by themselves; (2) with a toddler peer; (3) with an adult peer; and (4) with a toddler peer and an adult peer. In the presence of a toddler peer, toddlers made fewer instrumental and distal social bids to their mothers. Presence of an adult peer or mother without a toddler peer increased toddler tactile and proximal bids to mother. Maternal affect expression, both positive and negative, was intensified in the absence of the peers. Higher level reciprocal toddler peer play was more frequent in the absence of the adult peer. These findings were interpreted in terms of different types of second order effects.

Effects of Maternal Interference on the Attachment and Exploratory Behavior of One-Year-Olds

Effects of maternal interference on social behavior toward mother and exploratory play were examined in a laboratory experimental paradigm. Subjects were 40 1-year-olds and their mothers. Mothers of the 20 interference-group infants were instructed periodically to physically interfere with their child's independent object play during the first half of the observation session. A postinterference free-play period immediately followed. The 20 control-group infants were permitted by mother to play freely throughout the session. Groups were matched for exposure to play materials. Despite its aversiveness, interference had no subsequent effect on infant social initiatives to mother, responsiveness to mother's social bids, or exploratory play.

Mother-infant interaction as a function of maternal ratings of temperament.

Mother-infant pairs (N = 38) were observed at home when infants were three months old; mothers also completed a questionnaire measure of infant temperament. Infants who were rated as irregular in biological functioning received somewhat less responsive mothering. A subgroup of infants rated as difficult, that is, extremely irregular, nonadaptable, and negative in mood, were then compared with matched controls; mothers interacted less and were less responsive to the social bids of infants they rated as difficult. This pattern of lowered maternal responsiveness was still in evidence at an eight-month follow-up observation, suggesting that negative perceptions of infant behavior can be persistent effects on the quality of caretaking.

Infant social cognition and “second-order” effects

Thirty-six one-year-olds were observed interacting with their parents in three contexts: mother present, father present, and both parents present. Results showed that the infants directed substantially more affiliative behaviors, and marginally more attachment behaviors, to their parents in the dyadic than in the triadic situation. The parents, too, were considerably more likely to interact with infants in the dyadic context. There are two processes whereby these “second-order” effects can be explained: Either infants distribute their social bids among the available interactants, or they respond to the increased activity of their parents. Since there was no correlation between the activity levels of the infants and their parents, it was suggested that one-year-olds respond primarily to the former cue. Previous studies have found that older infants and adults employ both cues. The results thus suggest that the social cognition of one-year-olds is more restricted than many theorists claim.

Social interaction development among behaviorally handicapped preschool children: Research and educational implications

Literature is reviewed that documents the effectiveness of a behavioral approach for increasing the social behaviors of behaviorally handicapped preschool children. However, this literature also suggests that reciprocal interaction between target subjects and significant others seldom generalized beyond treatment settings. The importance of developing positive, reciprocal interaction has been well documented. The results of observational studies suggest that with respect to both quantity and quality of interaction, the child creates his own social environment. For example, the passive, withdrawn child is the more frequent recipient of social rejection than is the more socially active child; the physically aggressive child receives more hostile social bids from peers than less aggressive youngsters; and, of course, the child who initiates positive interaction with peers tends to receive more positive social attention than less socially adept youngsters. Thus, children's behavior patterns tend to set the occasion for that kind of social approach by peers that validates, in a sense, their own approach to peers. If affective education for young handicapped children is to become a reality, additional research is necessary to identify those response patterns that set the occasion for positive reciprocal interaction.