Snow Drift Research Articles

Early-stage design support for ice-shell architecture with integrated snow drift simulation tool

The data on snow distribution on roofs can aid in optimizing the weatherability of ice-shell architecture. However, there is currently a lack of technology for predicting snow drift in early-stage design. The study proposes a snow drift simulation method for ice shells, utilizing Butterfly to call the OpenFOAM solver. A snow drift simulation tool based on this method was developed and validated through three case studies. The validation results provide suggestions for mesh accuracy and time steps for typical ice-shell architecture simulation with the tool. Simulation results from the tool are used to analyze the impact of ice-shell architectural specific features (texture, plane, orientation) on weatherability, focusing on the coupling optimization of snow and radiation for typical ice shells. The study demonstrates the tool's effectiveness, simplifying the simulation process and extending its applicability to other cold-region buildings. The feature analysis indicates that the ribbed texture more effectively blocks solar radiation through snow distribution.

Representation of Blowing Snow and Associated Visibility Reduction in an Operational High-Resolution Weather Model

Abstract Blowing snow is a hazard for motorists because it may rapidly reduce visibility. Numerical weather prediction models in the United States do not capture the movement of snow once it reaches the ground, but visibility reductions due to blowing snow can be diagnosed based on model-predicted land surface and environmental conditions that correlate with blowing snow occurrence. A recently developed diagnostic framework for forecasting blowing snow concentration and the associated visibility reduction is applied to High-Resolution Rapid Refresh (HRRR) and Rapid Refresh Forecast System (RRFS) model output including surface snow conditions to predict surface visibility reduction due to blowing snow. Twelve blowing snow events around Wyoming from 2018 to 2023 are examined. The analysis shows that visibility reductions due to blowing snow tend to be overpredicted, caused by the initial assumption of full driftability of the snowpack. This study refines the aging of the blowing snow reservoir with two methods. The first method estimates driftability based on time-varying snow density from the Rapid Update Cycle land surface model (RUC LSM) used in the HRRR and experimental RRFS models and is evaluated in a real-time context with the RRFS model. The second, complementary method diagnoses snowpack driftability using a process-based approach that requires data for recent snowfall, wind speed, and skin temperature. Compared to the full driftability assumption, this method shows limited improvements in forecasting skill. To improve model-based diagnosis of visibility reduction due to blowing snow, empirical work is needed to determine the relation between snowpack driftability and the recent history of snowfall and other weather conditions. Significance Statement Blowing snow presents a significant hazard to motorists and airport operations through sometimes very rapid and intense reductions in visibility, yet little predictive guidance exists for blowing snow. This study aims to improve the prediction of blowing snow occurrence and associated surface visibility reduction using diagnostics from an operational high-resolution weather model. One key challenge regards the question of driftability of the snowpack. This study evaluates two approaches to quantify driftability in terms of visibility reduction due to blowing snow and acknowledges that more measurements are needed to improve the representation of blowing snow physics in NWP models.

Development of snow-blowing structures for protection roads from snow drifts

Introduction. The article discusses the use of the snow blowing method and the possibility of installing snowblowing structures on highways to protect against snow drifts. The problem of snow tolerance is identified due to the location of many highways in remote, hard-to-reach areas and difficult climatic conditions. Snow drifts significantly increase the cost of winter maintenance of roads, are a partial consequence of destruction and maintenance in the summer, and also pose a serious threat to safety, causing loss of control over the vehicle.Research methodology. The article discusses the application of the snow blowing method and the possibility of installing snow-blowing structures on roads to protect against snow drifts. The process of movement of snow particles in a snowstorm and the influence of these processes on snow blowing are considered.Results. The paper highlights the issues related to the analysis and assessment of the speed and composition of the air flow, weather conditions affecting the operation of structures. The main purpose and working conditions of snow-blowing structures on highways have been determined. The optimum speed at which the snow blowing effect is created is determined.Conclusion. The snow blowing process on the developed snow blowing structure in different conditions is modelled. Based on the considered approach, a comparative analysis of the operation of the snow blowing structure is performed. Based on the data obtained, the possibilities for the introduction of snow-blowing structures and refinement in real working conditions have been studied.

Operational and experimental snow observation systems in the upper Rofental: data from 2017 to 2023

Abstract. This publication presents a comprehensive hydrometeorological data set for three research sites in the upper Rofental (1891–3772 m a.s.l., Ötztal Alps, Austria) and is a companion publication to a data collection published in 2018. The time series presented here comprise data from 2017 to 2023 and originate from three meteorological and snow hydrological stations at 2737, 2805, and 2919 m a.s.l. The fully equipped automatic weather stations include a specific set of sensors to continuously record snow cover properties. These are automatic measurements of snow depth, snow water equivalent, volumetric solid and liquid water contents, snow density, layered snow temperature profiles, and snow surface temperature. One station is extended by a particular arrangement of two snow depth and water equivalent recording devices to observe and quantify wind-driven snow transport. These devices are installed at nearby wind-exposed and sheltered locations and are complemented by an acoustic-based snow drift sensor. We present data for temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind speed, and radiation fluxes and explore the continuous snow measurements by combined analyses of meteorological and snow data to show typical seasonal snow cover characteristics. The potential of the snow drift observations is demonstrated with examples of measured wind speeds, snow drift rates, and redistributed snow amounts during several blowing snow events. The data complement the scientific monitoring infrastructure in the research catchment and represent a unique time series of high-altitude mountain weather and snow observations. They enable comprehensive insights into the dynamics of high-altitude meteorological and snow processes and are collected to support the scientific community, local stakeholders, and the interested public, as well as operational warning and forecasting services. The data are publicly available from the GFZ Data Services repository: https://doi.org/10.5880/fidgeo.2023.037 (Department of Geography, University of Innsbruck, 2024).

Numerical simulation of wind–snow flow on a roof considering time-varying snow phase boundaries

Large-span roofs can be damaged by uneven snow loads caused by snow drifting. To predict wind-induced snow loads more accurately, this paper proposes a numerical simulation method. The method considers the interaction of wind and snow, the changing characteristics of snow phase boundaries over time, and corrects for snow deposition and erosion flux. The effectiveness of the method was confirmed by simulating wind–snow flow on a three-centered cylindrical shell and comparing the results with wind tunnel measurements. The simulation considered different snowfall conditions and time-varying snow phase boundaries on a large-span shell-shaped roof. The study investigated the influence of snowfall conditions and dynamic changes in snow phase boundaries on snow cover distribution by comparing simulation results.

Numerical investigation of wind-induced snowdrift on a long-span saddle-shaped roof based on the k-kl-ω model

Long-span structures are more vulnerable to the imbalanced distribution of snow loads, which is a primary factor contributing to structural failure. The development of snowdrifts is directly related to the shape of buildings, as it significantly affects turbulent characteristics and the process of snow drifting. This study explores the evolution of snowdrifts on a long-span saddle-shaped roof under various wind conditions. The numerical k-kl-ω model is validated against observation data by testing the flow field and snow distribution features of a stepped flat roof and a wind tunnel test. The snowdrift on a long-span saddle-shaped roof is simulated using the proven method, and the snowdrift's properties are studied at different wind speeds, wind angles, and threshold friction speeds. A comparative analysis of wind-induced snowdrift development on open and closed roofs is given, and the snow shape coefficients for each roof partition of the prototype roof are also provided. The findings indicate that the characteristics of snowdrifts on the roof vary with changing wind environmental factors, and the adverse inflow velocity and wind angle are identified. Snow morphology variation is more subject to an influence on changing inflow velocities compared to an alternation in wind-blowing time. The study reveals differences in how wind-driven fresh snow and long-deposited snow distribute themselves, with fresh snow producing more unevenness, potentially affecting roofs' load-bearing capacity.

Contourite-like deposits suggest stronger-than-present circulation in the Plio-Pleistocene Red Sea

Red Sea Deep Water is presently slow-moving, but was this true of the earlier Plio-Pleistocene (PP)? In seismic reflection records, the PP deposits are distorted by halokinetic deformation of their underlying Miocene evaporites. However, if reflections are flattened to a prominent reflector representing the top of the Miocene, they reveal mounded deposits within the earlier PP along both sides of the sea. Off Egypt, a plastered drift occurs along a salt wall. In the central Red Sea, they are mounded drifts. Seismic reflections from these deposits change shape gradually upwards to the modern seabed, which is commonly flatter, suggesting a gradual change in depositional conditions. To explain their origins, we appeal to other evidence. DSDP cores from the Late Pleistocene contain the rigid aragonite cements formed by restricted conditions, but not the lower and middle PP. Furthermore, mid-PP sedimentary δ18O values are similar to global ocean δ18O for that time, not enhanced as expected from excess evaporation. These data suggest that there was a greater exchange of Red Sea waters with the Indian Ocean during the mid-PP. That exchange may have allowed waters densified by evaporation in shallow regions of the northern Red Sea to flow south vigorously (the mounds would then be contourites). Alternatively, as the Pliocene seabed was shallower, wind-driven eddies may have affected more of the water column. Overall, the results indicate for the first time that deep circulation was stronger in the earlier PP compared with the present day. That circulation needs to be considered when evaluating organism dispersions across the Red Sea, regional climate, and influence of Red Sea Outflow Water on Indian Ocean Intermediate Water. Plain language summaryDuring the Pliocene (about 3–5 million years ago), temperatures on Earth's surface were similar to those predicted in some models of Earth's future climate. This has led to researchers becoming interested in studying geological evidence of conditions during the Pliocene as a clue to Earth's future. In detail, however, the comparison may not be exact. In our article, we describe mounds of sediment that were originally formed on the bed of the Red Sea in the Pliocene. They appear similar to snow drifts, and like snow drifts, may have formed under steady currents. Sea water becomes dense with evaporation (making it more saline). At the present day, dense water created in the Gulf of Suez cascades down into the deep Red Sea as a slow current. Perhaps such movements were more vigorous in the Pliocene, helped by the water escaping through a deeper barrier in the south into the Indian Ocean? Alternatively, these mounds were formed by giant eddies, such as those on the surface of the modern Red Sea, which are moved by strong winds. In either case, the deep waters of the Pliocene Pliocene Red Sea were more vigorously moving compared to the quiescent deep waters of the modern-day.

A Drifting and Blowing Snow Scheme in the Weather Research and Forecasting Model

AbstractWind‐driven redistribution of surface snow is one of the key factors leading to heterogeneous accumulation of snow at small scales. Understanding the processes that lead to this heterogeneous accumulation is, therefore, of great importance to many glaciological and hydrological questions. High‐quality information on the wind field is necessary to realistically represent drifting snow. Here, we introduce a novel, intermediate‐complexity drifting and blowing snow module for the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model that integrates seamlessly into the standard WRF infrastructure. The module also accounts for snow particle sublimation and considers the thermodynamic feedback on the atmospheric fields. In an idealized model environment the module was tested for physical consistency. Sensitivity experiments showed that drifting snow sublimation has on the one hand local effects on the erosion and deposition patterns and on the other hand non‐local effects on the larger‐scale atmosphere. The simple and computationally efficient implementation allows this module to be used for small‐scale and large‐scale simulations in polar and glaciated regions.

A novel framework to investigate wind-driven snow redistribution over an Alpine glacier: combination of high-resolution terrestrial laser scans and large-eddy simulations

Abstract. Wind-driven snow redistribution affects the glacier mass balance by eroding or depositing mass from or to different parts of the glacier’s surface. High-resolution observations are used to test the ability of large-eddy simulations as a tool for distributed mass balance modeling. We present a case study of observed and simulated snow redistribution over Hintereisferner glacier (Ötztal Alps, Austria) between 6 and 9 February 2021. Observations consist of three high-resolution digital elevation models (Δx=1 m) derived from terrestrial laser scans taken shortly before, directly after, and 15 h after snowfall. The scans are complemented by datasets from three on-site weather stations. After the snowfall event, we observed a snowpack decrease of 0.08 m on average over the glacier. The decrease in the snow depth can be attributed to post-snowfall compaction and the wind-driven redistribution of snow. Simulations were performed with the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model at Δx=48 m with a newly implemented snow drift module. The spatial patterns of the simulated snow redistribution agree well with the observed generalized patterns. Snow redistribution contributed −0.026 m to the surface elevation decrease over the glacier surface on 8 February, resulting in a mass loss of −3.9 kg m−2, which is on the same order of magnitude as the observations. With the single case study we cannot yet extrapolate the impact of post-snowfall events on the seasonal glacier mass balance, but the study shows that the snow drift module in WRF is a powerful tool to improve knowledge on wind-driven snow redistribution patterns over glaciers.

Global Observations of Tropospheric Bromine Monoxide (BrO) Columns From TROPOMI

AbstractBromine monoxide (BrO) plays an important role in tropospheric chemistry. The state‐of‐the‐science TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) offers the potential to monitor atmospheric composition with a fine spatial resolution of up to 5.5 × 3.5 km2. We present here the retrieval of tropospheric BrO columns from TROPOMI. We implement a stratospheric correction scheme using a climatological approach based on the latest GEOS‐Chem High Performance chemical transport model, and improve the tropospheric air mass factor calculation with TROPOMI surface albedo data accounting for the geometrical dependency. Our product presents a good level of consistency in comparison with measurements from ground‐based zenith‐sky differential optical absorption spectroscopy (r = 0.67), aircrafts (r = 0.46), and satellites (similar spatial distributions of BrO columns). Furthermore, our retrieval captures BrO enhancements in the polar springtime with values up to 7.8 × 1013 molecules cm−2 and identifies small‐scale emission sources such as volcanoes and salt marshes. Based on TROPOMI data, we probe a blowing snow aerosol bromine mechanism in which the snow salinity is reduced to better match simulation and observation. Our TROPOMI tropospheric BrO product contributes high‐resolution global information to studies investigating atmospheric bromine chemistry.

Coupling injunctive social norms with evolutionary games

Human behaviors are strongly influenced by social norms. This work couples injunctive social norms with evolutionary games. Injunctive norms refer to behaviors which individuals should conform to and thereby entail social pressure to adhere to a particular action. Here we investigate impact of such social norms on both pairwise and multi-player games. It is shown that injunctive norms can enforce the system to either extreme, meaning that they give rise to the possibility of bi-stability (two stable equilibrium states) in evolutionary games. We derive the condition for such bi-stability in the mean-field limit. While investigating pairwise games with social norms, we observe that —besides other possibilities—Prisoner's dilemma (PD), snow-drift (SD), and Trivial (TR) games may experience the bi-stability like the stag-hunt (SH) game. Interestingly, SD game with social norms exhibits four possible asymptotic outcomes: all-cooperation (AllC), all-defection (AllD), either AllC or AllD (bi-stable), and coexistence. However, its multi-player variant does not manifest a unique coexistence equilibrium. Moreover, it demonstrates another bi-stable equilibrium, comprising either coexistence or AllC, besides other outcomes observed in the two-player case. Conversely, PD and its multi-player variant, i.e., public goods game with injunctive norms show identical evolutionary outcomes (AllD or bi-stable).

SPH numerical simulation of snow drift movement with complex particle size

SPH numerical simulation of snow drift movement with complex particle size

Impacts of shrub removal on snow and near-surface thermal conditions in permafrost terrain adjacent to the Dempster Highway, NT, Canada

The Peel Plateau, NT, Canada, is an area underlain by warm continuous permafrost where changes in soil moisture, snow conditions, and shrub density have increased ground temperatures next to the Dempster Highway. In this study, ground temperatures, snow, and thaw depth were monitored before and after tall shrub removal (2014). A snow survey after tall shrub removal indicated that snow depth decreased by a third and lowered winter ground temperatures when compared with control tall shrub sites. The response of ground temperatures to shrub removal depended on soil type. The site with organic soils had cooler winter temperatures and no apparent change in summer temperatures following shrub removal. At sites with mineral soil, moderate winter ground cooling insufficiently counteracted increases in summer ground heat flux caused by canopy removal. Given the predominance of mineral soil along the Dempster, these observations suggest tall shrub removal is not a viable short-term permafrost management strategy. Additionally, the perpendicular orientation of the Highway to prevailing winter winds stimulates snow drift formation and predisposes the site to warmer permafrost temperatures, altered hydrology, and tall shrub proliferation. Subsequent research should explore the effectiveness of tall shrub removal at sites with colder winter conditions or different snow accumulation patterns.

Diagnosis of Antarctic Blowing Snow Properties Using MERRA-2 Reanalysis with a Machine Learning Model

Abstract This paper presents work using a machine learning model to diagnose Antarctic blowing snow (BLSN) properties with the Modern-Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications, version 2 (MERRA-2), data. We adopt the random forest classifier for BLSN identification and the random forest regressor for BLSN optical depth and height diagnosis. BLSN properties observed from the Cloud–Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation (CALIPSO) are used as the truth for training the model. Using MERRA-2 fields such as snow age, surface elevation and pressure, temperature, specific humidity, and temperature gradient at the 2-m level, and wind speed at the 10-m level as input, reasonable results are achieved. Hourly blowing snow property diagnostics are generated with the trained model. Using 2010 as an example, it is shown that the Antarctic BLSN frequency is much higher over East than West Antarctica. High-frequency months are from April to September, during which BLSN frequency exceeds 20% over East Antarctica. For May 2010, the BLSN snow frequency in the region is as high as 37%. Due to the suppression by strong surface-based inversions, larger values of BLSN height and optical depth are usually limited to the coastal regions, wherein the strength of surface-based inversions is weaker.

Reliability assessment and performance improvement of long-span roof structure subjected to coupled wind-snow multi-hazard

Sensitivity to wind and snow loads has been the focus of reliability analysis and safety design of long-span roof structures in cold regions. In this study, the reliability assessment and performance improvement of a long-span roof structure subjected to coupled wind-snow multi-hazard are addressed. To this end, the average wind pressure coefficients of roof surface are first derived from wind tunnel tests, and the two-dimensional wind velocity field simulation is carried out by using the refined spectral representation scheme based on joint wavenumber-frequency power spectrum and stochastic harmonic function. The snow pressure coefficients of structural roof considering wind-induced snow drift effects are obtained by conducting computational fluid dynamics simulation. Then the global reliability of the structure subjected to coupled wind-snow multi-hazard with 100-yr return period is assessed using the probability density evolution method (PDEM). To improve structural performance, a control scheme of distributed tuned mass dampers (d-TMDs) is designed according to the structural dynamics of their deployment positions. Numerical results show that the fluctuating wind is a critical factor resulting in deformation failure of the long-span roof structure, and the proposed control scheme has sound effectiveness and robustness to mitigate the fluctuating wind effect and thus improve the structural performance.

CRYOWRF—Model Evaluation and the Effect of Blowing Snow on the Antarctic Surface Mass Balance

AbstractThe surface mass balance (SMB) of large polar ice sheets and of snow and ice surfaces in general are incompletely understood because of the complexity of processes involved. One such process, drifting and blowing snow, has only been considered in a very simplified way in current meteorological and climatological models. To address this problem, the CRYOWRF model has been developed, a coupled model between the meteorological Weather Research and Forecasting model (WRF) and the snow model SNOWPACK, augmented by a detailed treatment of drifting and blowing snow. Applying CRYOWRF to the SMB of Antarctica, we find that the model reproduces measurements of SMB with similar errors than current models. Drifting and blowing snow and its sublimation play a particularly important role, especially in regions of strong katabatic winds. The CRYOWRF simulations are also in line with satellite estimates of blowing snow frequency. There is a need to further consolidate results by simulations with a higher grid resolution and by including more measurements of SMB contributions from snow fall to transport and sublimation.

АЭРОДИНАМИЧЕСКАЯ ТРУБА 3-АТ-17,5/3 ФИРМЫ УНИКОН. ПОЛВЕКА В ЭКСПЛУАТАЦИИ

The wind tunnel with a long working part, designed for experimental solution of problems of energy, civil, industrial construction, as well as assessment of environmental indicators of projected and existing facilities, has been in operation for 50 years. The issues of wind pressure on the projected main buildings and auxiliary buildings, tower cooling towers, coal conveyor galleries of powerful thermal power plants, supports, phases and garlands of insulators of unique power transmission lines in dimensions of 1150 kilovolts (AC) and 1500 kilovolts (DC), issues of snow drifts of electric conversion complexes, warehouses of thermal coal have been resolved. It is shown that with certain wind directions relative to the studied object, the wind pressure in the local areas of the roof and facades can exceed 4 (four) or more times the values recommended by regulatory documents. The aerodynamic parameters of high-rise and unique buildings and complexes have been studied under the conditions of mutual influence of individual buildings in the complex, and recommendations have been developed for the purpose of wind and snow loads on buildings and structures. The results of model studies in the wind tunnel 3-AT-17.5/3 of the UNICON company are the basis for the Temporary Recommendations of the MDS 20-1.2006. Methods have been developed and proposed to reduce the volume of coal dust removal from the surface of open warehouses of thermal coal, as well as from the surface of rock dumps during open-pit coal mining. During the half-century period of technical operation, all non-metallic components of the wind tunnel have become physically obsolete, nodes with movable elements have worked out their resource, which required a deep modernization of the aerodynamic channel.

Dynamics of the snow grain size in a windy coastal area of Antarctica from continuous in situ spectral-albedo measurements

Abstract. The grain size of the superficial snow layer is a key determinant of the surface albedo in Antarctica. Its evolution is the result of multiple interacting processes, such as dry and wet metamorphism, melt, snow drift, and precipitation. Among them, snow drift has the least known and least predictable impact. The goal of this study is to relate the variations in surface snow grain size to these processes in a windy location of the Antarctic coast. For this, we retrieved the daily grain size from 5-year-long in situ observations of the spectral albedo recorded by a new multi-band albedometer, unique in terms of autonomy and described here for the first time. An uncertainty assessment and a comparison with satellite-retrieved grain size were carried out to verify the reliability of the instrument, and an RMSE up to 0.16 mm in the observed grain size was found. By relating these in situ measurements to time series of snow drift, surface temperature, snow surface height and snowfall, we established that the evolution of the grain size in the presence of snow drift is complex and follows two possible pathways: (1) a decrease in the grain size (about half of our measurements) resulting from the deposition of small grains advected by the wind (surprisingly, this decrease is often – 2/3 of the cases– associated with a decrease in the surface height, i.e., a net erosion over the drift episode), (2) an increase in the grain size (the other half) due to either the removal of the surface layer or metamorphism. However, we note that this increase is often limited with respect to the increase predicted by a theoretical metamorphism model, suggesting that a concomitant deposition of small grains is likely. At last, we found that wind also completely impedes the deposition of snowfall during half of the observed precipitation events. When this happens, the grain size evolves as if precipitation were not occurring. As a result of all these processes, we conclude that the grain size in a windy area remains more stable than it would be in the absence of snow drift, hence limiting the variations in the albedo and in the radiative energy budget.

Evaluation of Temperature-Index and Energy-Balance Snow Models for Hydrological Applications in Operational Water Supply Forecasts

In the western United States, snow accumulation, storage, and ablation affect seasonal runoff. Thus, the prediction of snowmelt is essential to improve the reliability of water supply forecasts to guide water allocation and operational decisions. The current method used at the Colorado Basin River Forecast Center (CBRFC) couples the SNOW-17 temperature-index snow model and the Sacramento Soil Moisture Accounting (SAC-SMA) runoff model in a lumped approach. Limitations in parameter transferability and calibration requirements for changing conditions with the temperature-index model motivated this research, in which new avenues were investigated to assess and prototype the application of an energy-balance snow model in a distributed modeling approach. The Utah Energy Balance (UEB) model was chosen to compare with the SNOW-17 model because it is simple and parsimonious, making it suitable for distributed application with the potential to improve water supply forecasts. Each model was coupled with the SAC-SMA model and the Rutpix7 routing model to simulate basin snowmelt and discharge. All the models were applied on grids over watersheds using the Research Distributed Hydrologic Model (RDHM) framework. Case studies were implemented for two study sites in the Colorado River basin over a period of two decades. The model performance was evaluated by comparing the model output with observed daily discharge and snow-covered area data obtained from remote sensing sources. Simulated evaporative components of sublimation and evapotranspiration were also evaluated. The results showed that the UEB model, requiring calibration of only a snow drift factor, achieves a comparable performance to the calibrated SNOW-17 model, and both provided reasonable basin snow and discharge simulations in the two study sites. The UEB model had the additional advantage of being able to explicitly simulate sublimation for different land types and thus better quantify evaporative water balance components and their sensitivity to land cover change. UEB also has a better transferability potential because it requires calibration of fewer parameters than SNOW-17. The majority of the parameters for UEB are physically based and regarded as constants characterizing spatially invariant properties of snow processes. Thus, the model remains valid for different climate and terrain conditions for multiple watersheds.

Comparison of varied complexity parameterizations in estimating blowing snow occurrences

Blowing snow has a major impact on the spatial–temporal evolution of snow cover. An accurate prediction of the initiation of snow particle movement is one of the prerequisites for blowing snow modeling. Previous studies have proposed varied complexity parameterizations to estimate the occurrence of blowing snow. However, a quantitative evaluation of the performance of different schemes in blowing snow identification remains lacking, particularly outside the regions where empirical schemes were proposed. This study details a comparative study of the performance of five distinct parameterizations with varying degrees of complexity in estimating the occurrence of blowing snow over the central French Alps. Our results show that less than half of blowing snow events can be accurately detected at most stations by traditional schemes, for example, the constant and temperature-based empirical threshold wind speed schemes, probability estimation, and physically based methods. In addition, the spatial variability of wind speed can result in considerable spatial variability in the occurrence of blowing snow, which cannot be captured by traditional methods. Decision tree-based models can detect blowing snow occurrences with higher accuracy, and the spatial variation in snow transport can be captured by including information on blowing snow occurrences at low wind speed stations. However, regardless of the training strategies employed, the decision tree-based model employed here estimated far too many false alarms. This study contributes to blowing snow modeling by presenting the current state-of-the-art and limitations of various schemes for detecting blowing snow occurrences, and highlights the importance of parameterization modification, key parameter calibration, and optimization.