Snares Islands Research Articles

Genomic analyses of fairy and fulmar prions (Procellariidae: Pachyptila spp.) reveals parallel evolution of bill morphology, and multiple species.

Prions are small petrels that are abundant around the Southern Ocean. Here we use mitochondrial DNA (COI and cytochrome b) and nuclear reduced representation sequencing (ddRADseq) to examine the relationships within and between fairy (Pachyptila turtur) and fulmar (P. crassirostris) prions from across their distributions. We found that neither species was recovered as monophyletic, and that at least three species were represented. Furthermore, we detected several genetic lineages that are also morphologically distinct occurring in near sympatry at two locations (Snares Islands and Chatham Islands). The factors that have driven diversification in the fairy/fulmar prion complex are unclear but may include philopatry, differences in foraging distribution during breeding, differences in non-breeding distributions and breeding habitat characteristics. The observed distribution of genetic variation in the fairy/fulmar prion complex is consistent with population expansion from ice-free Last Glacial Maximum refugia into previously glaciated areas.

Cephalopods habitat and trophic ecology: historical data using snares penguin as biological sampler

In the Southern Ocean and adjacent waters, early stages of cephalopods play an important role in food webs as prey to top predators, but few is known regarding their biology and availability. Snares Penguin, Eudyptes robustus, is a top predator endemic to Snares Islands (New Zealand) that feed on cephalopods. As historical data on diet are rare for this species, Snares Penguins were used as biological samplers to evaluate the cephalopod component of its diet, where habitat and trophic level of cephalopods around the Snares Islands was assessed through stable isotope analysis. Moreover, ontogenic changes of juvenile squid were evaluated. Data collection were carried out during the breeding season 1986–87 and its analysis revealed that penguins fed on three juvenile cephalopod species: two squids (Nototodarus sloanii and Moroteuthopsis ingens) and one octopod (Octopus campbelli). Nototodarus sloanii was the most important species in frequency of occurrence and mass, whereas M. ingens was the most important in number. Juvenile squid species showed similar δ13C values, suggesting both occupied similar habitats on the Snares shelf, whereas juvenile O. campbelli showed lower δ13C values. Moreover, O. campbelli fed on higher trophic level (δ15N) prey relative to squid species. Lower diversity and larger sizes of cephalopods were found when compared with data from 2002. This study shows that Snares Penguin can be a good local biological sampler of juvenile cephalopods during their breeding season, providing both essential biogeographic information of cephalopod diversity and relevant historical information for the conservation of this endemic penguin species.

Unnamed for over 30 years: Gigartina falshawiae sp. nov. (Gigartinaceae, Rhodophyta) and its confusion with Iridaea tuberculosa in New Zealand

ABSTRACTGigartina species are very common and abundant on intertidal rocky shores in New Zealand but members of this genus and the family Gigartinaceae are still not fully documented. A well-known species, distributed as No. 164 of the Lindauer Nova-Zelandicae Exsiccatae, were labelled by Lindauer as Gigartina tuberculosa from material collected in Stewart Island. However, Gigartina tuberculosa (as Chondrus tuberculosus) was described based on specimens collected from the New Zealand subantarctic Auckland Island. Later, material from the Strait of Magellan was referred to this species. In 1993, Gigartina tuberculosa was transferred to Iridaea tuberculosa with its distribution considered to be Chile, Cape Horn, Antarctica, Falklands Islands, Tristan da Cunha, Gough Island and the Campbell Plateau. The species distributed by Lindauer is here described as Gigartina falshawiae sp. nov. These species can be differentiated morphologically: G. falshawiae has thalli that are forked, somewhat irregular and form bushy clumps, with proliferations at the margins and on the blades, and with cystocarps surrounded by lobes, whereas thalli of Iridaea tuberculosa are fan-shaped, lack proliferations, and have globose cystocarps. The distributional ranges of these species also differ: G. falshawiae is found on Stewart Island and I. tuberculosa on the New Zealand subantarctic islands (recorded from the Antipodes, Auckland and Campbell Islands), while the species co-occur on the Snares Islands.

Nearshore marine communities at three New Zealand sub-Antarctic islands

The sub-Antarctic islands of New Zealand are biodiversity hotspots in the Southern Ocean, containing numerous endemic species and providing breeding grounds for seabirds and marine mammals. However, due to their remoteness and harsh environments, many of their marine ecosystems are relatively unexplored and potentially at risk from alien invasive species. To better understand nearshore marine ecosystems at three New Zealand sub-Antarctic islands (Snares Islands, Auckland Islands and Campbell Island), we sampled nektobenthic fish and mobile macroinvertebrates at 40 sites (15–20 m depth) using baited remote underwater videos (BRUVs). MaxN of each species in the videos was recorded in 5-min intervals for 45 min, allowing analyses of MaxN over the whole deployment, as well as change through time during the deployment. Species distributions appeared to reflect both the geomorphological and biogeographic traits of the islands. The Auckland Islands and Campbell Island contain large inlets dominated by mobile crustaceans, and biological trends followed gradients in marine exposure along inlets. In contrast, the Snares Islands are mostly exposed coast and contained a higher diversity of fish species common with mainland New Zealand. We suggest that differences in nearshore marine communities between these islands are likely due to the combined effects of habitat availability, biogeography, and ocean temperature.

Cephalopod component of Snares Penguin (Eudyptes robustus) at Snares Islands, New Zealand in the 1980´s: relationships with local fisheries and implications on the penguin’s conservation

Cephalopod component of Snares Penguin (Eudyptes robustus) at Snares Islands, New Zealand in the 1980´s: relationships with local fisheries and implications on the penguin’s conservation

Long distance kelp-rafting of rocks around southern New Zealand

ABSTRACTAbundant rafts of kelp Durvillaea antarctica float northeast past the southeast coast of the South Island of New Zealand, commonly with attached rocks. Most rafts pass offshore unseen, but strong easterly winds during a series of five cyclonic storm events in 2017–2018 forced rafts carrying exotic rocks onto Dunedin city beaches. The kelp-rafted rocks ranged from boulders weighing several kilograms to centimetre-scale veneers. Kelp genetics confirm a southern New Zealand source and colonising barnacles indicate 10–20 days’ travel time. Distinctive limestones, granite-derived calcareous sandstones and amphibolite facies gneisses were derived from southwestern Fiordland 300–400 km from Dunedin. Most of the exotic rocks were granitoids derived from southwestern Fiordland and/or Stewart and Snares islands. Mafic volcanogenic breccia and pyroxenite were derived from the coast of Foveaux Strait. Kelp rafting is not a major source of coastal sediment but may have been responsible for some exotic clasts in the late Cenozoic geological record in inland Otago.

Phytoplankton community structure is influenced by seabird guano enrichment in the Southern Ocean

Phytoplankton biomass, productivity and community structure are strongly influenced by differences in nutrient concentrations among oceanographic water masses. Changes in community composition, particularly in the distribution of cell sizes, can result in dramatic changes in the energetics of pelagic food webs and ecosystem function in terms of biogeochemical cycling and carbon sequestration. Here we examine responses of natural phytoplankton communities from four major water masses in the Southern Ocean to enrichment from seabird guano, a concentrated source of bioactive metals (Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn) and macronutrients (N, P), in a series of incubation experiments. Phytoplankton communities from sub-tropical water, modified sub-tropical water from the Snares Island wake, sub-Antarctic water and Antarctic water from the Ross Sea, each showed dramatic changes in community structure following additions of seabird guano. We observed particularly high growth of prymnesiophytes in response to the guano-derived nutrients within sub-Antarctic and sub-tropical frontal zones, resulting in communities dominated by larger cell sizes than in control incubations. Community changes within treatments enriched with guano were distinct, and in most cases more extensive, than those observed for treatments with additions of macronutrients (N, P) or iron (Fe) alone. These results provide the first empirical evidence that seabird guano enrichment can drive significant changes in the structure and composition of natural phytoplankton communities. Our findings have important implications for understanding the consequences of accumulation of bioactive metals and macronutrients within food webs and the role of seabirds as nutrient vectors within the Southern Ocean ecosystem.

Marine micronutrient vectors: seabirds, marine mammals and fishes egest high concentrations of bioactive metals in the subantarctic island ecosystem

MEPS Marine Ecology Progress Series Contact the journal Facebook Twitter RSS Mailing List Subscribe to our mailing list via Mailchimp HomeLatest VolumeAbout the JournalEditorsTheme Sections MEPS 563:13-23 (2017) - DOI: https://doi.org/10.3354/meps11978 Marine micronutrient vectors: seabirds, marine mammals and fishes egest high concentrations of bioactive metals in the subantarctic island ecosystem S. R. Wing1,*, L. C. Wing1, O. A. Shatova1, R. Van Hale2 1Department of Marine Science and 2Department of Chemistry, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand *Corresponding author: steve.wing@otago.ac.nz ABSTRACT: We investigated concentrations of bioactive metals (Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Cd) in organic matter source pools: suspended particulate organic matter and macroalgae, and macrozooplankton from the vicinity of the Snares Islands, situated adjacent to the Subtropical Frontal Zone south of New Zealand. Further we sampled egested material from 6 coastal fishes, 8 seabirds and 2 pinniped species with rookeries on the islands. Analysis of δ15N and δ13C from basal organic matter sources, zooplankton, fish muscle tissue and egesta of fishes, seabirds and pinnipeds was used to estimate trophic position for each group. We found a food web heavily dependent on pelagic productivity culminating with New Zealand fur seals and Hooker’s sea lions. We compared multivariate concentration profiles of metals in the egesta of 4 trophic level groups from the Snares Islands with 4 similar trophic groups from the Auckland Islands. Results indicated more variation in concentration of bioactive metals in egesta among trophic level groups, than among islands. These results demonstrated that several potentially limiting micronutrients (Mn, Fe, Co, Zn) are bioaccumulated in the egesta of upper trophic levels of subantarctic food webs. The variance in concentration patterns of bioactive metals is more coincident with differences in food web structure than differences in water mass type surrounding the 2 islands. The patterns observed have important implications for understanding the interactions between food web architecture, biological vectors and productivity around the subantarctic islands of the Southern Ocean. KEY WORDS: Southern Ocean · Iron · Seabird · Fish · Marine mammal · Nutrient vector Full text in pdf format PreviousNextCite this article as: Wing SR, Wing LC, Shatova OA, Van Hale R (2017) Marine micronutrient vectors: seabirds, marine mammals and fishes egest high concentrations of bioactive metals in the subantarctic island ecosystem. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 563:13-23. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps11978 Export citation RSS - Facebook - Tweet - linkedIn Cited by Published in MEPS Vol. 563. Online publication date: January 20, 2017 Print ISSN: 0171-8630; Online ISSN: 1616-1599 Copyright © 2017 Inter-Research.

Seabird guano enhances phytoplankton production in the Southern Ocean

Six incubation experiments were carried out to investigate the phytoplankton biomass response to seabird guano-enrichment under different nutrient regimes. Study locations included Antarctic waters of the Ross Sea and sub-Antarctic waters offshore of the Otago Peninsula, both being characterized by iron limitation of phytoplankton productivity in summer, the Sub-Tropical Frontal Zone offshore of the Snares Islands, which is generally micronutrient-replete, and the island wake waters of the Snares Islands, which have a high nutrient supply from land. In all of the experiments the increase of phytoplankton biomass was higher in the treatments with guano addition compared to the controls. Guano additions were compared to Fe and macronutrients treatments (both added in quantities similar to those in the guano treatment) to shed light on which constituent(s) of guano are responsible for the observed increases in phytoplankton biomass. Macronutrients increased the phytoplankton biomass in the Sub-Tropical Frontal Zone, however, the response was less prominent than in the Guano treatment, suggesting synergetic effects of nutrients in seabird guano on phytoplankton production. It was also found that the pattern of response varied between the water masses with 6–10days lag phase in the Sub-Antarctic water mass and no lag phase in Sub-Tropical Frontal Zone. The calculations presented here suggest that micro- and macronutrients delivered from seabird colonies on some of the sub-Antarctic islands may provide a significant amount of limiting nutrients to the nutrient budget of the surrounding coastal waters, potentially sufficient to sustain a local phytoplankton bloom. Findings of the present study indicate that biological recycling of nutrients by seabirds likely supports marine primary production and enhances productivity of associated food webs in the vicinity of islands.

A morphometric approach supporting genetic results in the taxonomy of the New Zealand limpets of the Cellana strigilis complex (Mollusca : Patellogastropoda : Nacellidae)

The New Zealand Cellana strigilis complex has been traditionally divided into six subspecies. Recent molecular investigations, however, revealed that the complex comprises two clades. In this paper, an additional morphometric analysis on 160 shells from the two clades confirms the need for taxonomic reconsideration of the C. strigilis complex. Here, two species are recognised in the Cellana strigilis group, a western species, C. strigilis (Hombron & Jacquinot, 1841), from South, Stewart, Snares, Auckland and Campbell islands, with Patella redimiculum Reeve, 1854 and C. strigilis flemingi Powell, 1955 as synonyms; and an eastern species, C. oliveri Powell, 1955, from Chatham, Bounty Islands and Antipodes Islands, with C. strigilis bollonsi Powell, 1955 and C. chathamensis of authors (not Pilsbry, 1891) as synonyms. Acmaea chathamensis Pilsbry, 1891 is based on mislocalised foreign shells, probably C. rota (Gmelin, 1791) from the Red Sea. A neotype is designated for P. strigilis Hombron & Jacquinot, 1841, lectotypes are designated for P. redimiculum Reeve, 1854 and A. chathamensis Pilsbry, 1891, and a type locality is selected for P. redimiculum.

Paratanaoidean tanaidaceans (Crustacea: Peracarida) from littoral and shallow sublittoral habitats in New Zealand, with descriptions of three new genera and seven new species

Three new genera and seven new species of paratanaoidean tanaidaceans are described from a variety of littoral and shallow sublittoral habitats around New Zealand, from the Snares Islands to Northland. These include a new leptocheliid genus, Parakonarus, closely allied to Konarus Bamber, and three paratanaids: two species of Paratanais Dana and a new genus, Atemtanais, which appears to show characters intermediate between Metatanais Shiino and Paratanais. The remaining three taxa belong either to the Tanaellidae (a new species of Araphura Bird & Holdich) or are of incertae sedis family status: Kanikipa n. gen. and a new species of Tanaopsis G.O. Sars.This study has almost doubled the known, published records of shallow-water tanaidomorphan species in New Zealand and all of the species are likely to be recorded more widely than the records here imply.

Developmental morphology of Sarcodia montagneana and S. grandifolia from New Zealand and a phylogeny of Sarcodia (Sarcodiaceae, Rhodophyta) based on rbcL sequence analysis

Despite its widespread distribution in the Indo-West Pacific Ocean, Sarcodia is one of the least understood genera among the red algae. Samples investigated from different parts of the Indo-West Pacific Ocean were well separated phylogenetically, based on rbcL base pair distances, and probably represent separate species. In this report we investigate the developmental morphology of two species from New Zealand: the type species, Sarcodia montagneana, and S. grandifolia (including S. ‘flabellata’). Molecular studies indicate that S. montagneana is restricted to the north-eastern part of the North Island and that S. grandifolia occurs from Wellington southwards as far as the Snares Islands. Thalli are multiaxial and consist of three primary layers: a surface layer of uninucleate cells, a cortex of five or six layers of polygonal multinucleate cells, and a medulla of multinucleate stellate cells. Secondary rhizoidal filaments are frequent to abundant in the medulla. Spermatangia occur in chains and release spermatia through a pore. The female reproductive system is procarpic and consists of a supporting cell that bears two side branches and a one-celled terminal carpogonium. The auxiliary cell is the basal cell of one of the side branches and is undifferentiated prior to fertilization. After presumed fertilization, the carpogonium separates into a terminal cell and a subterminal hypogynous cell that fuses with the auxiliary cell and deposits in it a single nucleus. The auxiliary cell cuts off a gonimoblast initial obliquely that first forms a short linear chain of gonimoblast cells. Cystocarp formation proceeds rapidly with the outward development of linear files derived from surface cells that differentiate into a terminal ostiole and inner and outer pericarp layers separated by a central cavity. The mature gonimoblasts consist of an inner gonimoblast reticulum of laterally fused cells that attach secondarily to outer cells of the inner pericarp and outer gonimoblast filaments that terminate in short chains of carposporangia. Tetrasporangia are zonately divided and are scattered over the thallus surface with new initials formed continuously. The morphological and molecular observations reported here contrast sharply with those of previous studies and are largely new to the Sarcodia literature.

Growing up in the temperate zone: Age, growth, calcification and carbonate mineralogy of Melicerita chathamensis (Bryozoa) in southern New Zealand

The cheilostome bryozoan Melicerita chathamensis from the continental shelf around southern New Zealand is unusual in having macroscopic annual growth checks. It thus presents an opportunity to examine annual variations in age, growth, calcification and carbonate mineralogy in a temperate bryozoan. Forty-one colonies dredged south of Snares Islands, New Zealand (47° 49.537′S, 166° 45.910′E, 166 m water depth, 2 February 2008) ranged from 2 to 9 years old and were up to 40 mm long. Segment length varied from 0.94 to 13.67 mm, with a mean growth rate of 5.27 mm yr − 1 , whereas segment weight varied from 0.1 to 37 mg, with an average calcification rate of 9.2 mg yr − 1 . Low-Mg calcite ranged from 0.8 to 3.6 wt.% MgCO 3, with a mean of 2.1 wt.% MgCO 3, whereas high-Mg calcite ranged from 6.6 wt.% MgCO 3 to 9.7 wt.% MgCO 3 with a mean of 8.1 wt.% MgCO 3. The well-studied polar Melicerita obliqua, in contrast, grows more slowly over a much longer period and calcifies more rapidly, suggesting that polar bryozoans may be more effective at sequestering carbon than their temperate counterparts. The proportion of each mineral in skeletal segments generally varied with age, from almost entirely high-Mg calcite in the oldest segments to entirely low-Mg calcite at the growing tips, with a mean of 60.7% high-Mg calcite. This unusual dual-calcite mineralogy appears to be analogous to some other cheilostomes which also produce a primary skeleton of low-Mg calcite but their secondary mineral is aragonite. Such bimineralic bryozoans, which are sophisticated mineralisers that exert a great deal of control over their skeletal composition, may be able to mineralise despite decreasing sea-water pH. Bimineral skeletal sediments, however, could be especially vulnerable to dissolution, as both aragonite and high-Mg calcite are more soluble than low-Mg calcite. Weakening of the skeleton by dissolution of secondary thickening could increase the likely effects of temperate abrasion and bioerosion.

Second and Third Records of Snares Penguins (Eudyptes robustus) in the Falkland Islands

Abstract The Snares Penguin (Eudyptes robustus) breeds only on the Snares Islands, New Zealand, and is vagrant throughout the New Zealand region and southeast Australia. The only previous record outside this area was one in the Falkland Islands in 1988. We report the unusual occurrence of two Snares Penguins in the same colony in the Falkland Islands in 2008, and discuss identification issues. Vagrant penguins demonstrate the incredible dispersal ability of these flightless birds.

Species limits and population differentiation in New Zealand snipes (Scolopacidae: Coenocorypha)

At least four species of New Zealand snipes (Coenocorypha) became extinct following the introduction of predatory mammals, and another two species suffered massive range reductions. To investigate species limits and population differentiation in six of the seven remaining offshore populations, we assayed variation in nine microsatellite loci and 1,980 base pairs of four mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) genes. Genetic diversity in all populations except the largest one on Adams Island in the Auckland Islands was very low in both genomes. Alleles were fixed at many microsatellite loci and for single mtDNA haplotypes, particularly in the populations in the Chathams, Snares, Antipodes and Campbell Islands. Strong population structure has developed, and Chathams and Snares Islands populations are effectively genetically isolated from one another and from the more southern island populations. Based on reciprocal monophyly of lineages and their morphological distinctiveness we recommend that three phylogenetic species should be recognized, C. pusilla in the Chatham Islands, C. huegeli in the Snares Islands and C. aucklandica in the southern islands. The populations of C. aucklandica in the Auckland Islands, Antipodes Island and Campbell Island may warrant recognition as subspecies, and all should be managed as separate conservation units.

Management frameworks for the New Zealand sub-Antarctic islands

The five island groups known as the New Zealand sub-Antarctic islands - Antipodes Islands, Auckland Islands, Bounty Islands, Campbell Island and Snares Islands - are perhaps better regarded as cool temperate although they share many features and many management issues with islands south of the Antarctic Convergence. The Snares and Bounty islands have granitic substrates; the Antipodes, Auckland and Campbell islands are of volcanic origin, Marine mammals and seabirds arc important components of the fauna, Terrestrial flora and invertebrate fauna show high levels of endemism. Several species of alien vertebrates have been successfully eradicated, The islands are managed by the New Zealand Department of Conservation as National Nature Reserves, and together are recognised as a World Heritage Site.

Long and Short Trips in Nonbreeding Buller's Albatrosses: Relationships with Colony Attendance and Body Mass

Abstract Foraging strategies of nonbreeding seabirds attending colonies remain virtually unknown. Here we report the results of a satellite telemetry study of nonbreeding Buller's Albatrosses (Thalassarche bulleri) from the Snares island group south of New Zealand in 2000–2001. Two 6- to 7-year-old prebreeding birds dispersed to Tasmania, Australia, from late May until at least late July. Six older birds (five prebreeding birds, one former breeding adult) all adopted a dual strategy of short trips (mean duration 1.3 days, mean foraging range 129 km) and long trips to southern New Zealand (9.6 days, 871 km) or Tasmania (22.0 days, 1918 km). Time allocation to short trips increased with age and experience (both sexes) and nest-site attendance (males), and decreased during the guard (when the chick is attended) and late postguard (chick left unattended) stages (females). Up to the guard stage, most birds present at their colony on consecutive days foraged overnight (mean foraging range 101 km). Nonbreeding birds used the same foraging areas as breeding adults, but allocated more foraging time to short trips during the corresponding incubation period and early postguard stage, and to long trips during the guard stage. Results suggest that prebreeding birds explore foraging areas sequentially, and increase their time ashore by progressing from making only long trips, to introducing short overnight trips, to modifying the duration of and allocation between long and short trips. Changes in body mass recorded on Solander Island (160 km north of the Snares) show that experienced nonbreeding birds initiate long foraging trips to regain mass lost during short trips, and suggest that less frequent short trips (and hence fewer returns ashore) among inexperienced birds are related to less efficient foraging during long trips.

LONG AND SHORT TRIPS IN NONBREEDING BULLER'S ALBATROSSES: RELATIONSHIPS WITH COLONY ATTENDANCE AND BODY MASS

Abstract Foraging strategies of nonbreeding seabirds attending colonies remain virtually unknown. Here we report the results of a satellite telemetry study of nonbreeding Buller's Albatrosses (Thalassarche bulleri) from the Snares island group south of New Zealand in 2000–2001. Two 6- to 7-year-old prebreeding birds dispersed to Tasmania, Australia, from late May until at least late July. Six older birds (five prebreeding birds, one former breeding adult) all adopted a dual strategy of short trips (mean duration 1.3 days, mean foraging range 129 km) and long trips to southern New Zealand (9.6 days, 871 km) or Tasmania (22.0 days, 1918 km). Time allocation to short trips increased with age and experience (both sexes) and nest-site attendance (males), and decreased during the guard (when the chick is attended) and late postguard (chick left unattended) stages (females). Up to the guard stage, most birds present at their colony on consecutive days foraged overnight (mean foraging range 101 km). Nonbreeding b...

Natal philopatry does not lead to population genetic differentiation in Buller's albatross (Thalassarche bulleri bulleri)

Genetic variability in the only two existing populations of Buller's albatross (Thalassarche bulleri bulleri) was assessed using six polymorphic microsatellite loci. Large biological samples were obtained from both the Snares (n = 99) and the Solander Islands (n = 27). Several measures of genetic differentiation including F(ST) and R(ST) and a principal coordinates analysis (PCO) suggest a complete absence of genetic structure between three breeding colonies on the Snares Islands, and between them and one breeding colony on the Solander Islands. Mark/recapture studies of recently banded albatross chicks on the Snares found high natal philopatry in T. b. bulleri, but the microsatellite DNA data suggest that sufficient gene flow still occurs between all four breeding colonies to maintain a genetically homogeneous population overall.

Increases in the numbers of breeding pairs in two populations of Buller's Albatross (Thalassarche butteri butteri)

The abundance and distribution of the southern subspecies of Buller's Albatross (Thalassarche b. bulleri) breeding on the Solander and Snares Islands were investigated during February—March 2002. At the Solander Islands, a total of 4912 breeding pairs was estimated from aerial and ground counts. This total compares to an adjusted total of 4147 breeding pairs estimated during February 1996 using the same methods, and indicates average annual increases of 3.1% during the period 1996–2002, compared with relatively stable numbers estimated for the period 1985–96. At the Snares Islands, a total of 8165 breeding pairs was counted on North East Island and associated islets from ground and vantage-point counts, and 8713 breeding pairs were estimated for the Snares Islands as a whole. Analysis of annual counts of breeding pairs on the North Promontory of North East Island showed an estimated increase in the breeding population of 3.2% per year. In 2002, the estimated total breeding population of Buller's Albatross at the Snares and Solander Islands was 13625 pairs.