Snacking Behavior Research Articles

Evening Ready-to-Eat Cereal Consumption Contributes to Weight Management

Objectives: Post dinner snacking may constitute a significant proportion of total daily energy intake and contribute to overweight and obesity in some individuals (night snackers). This study tested the hypothesis that providing a structured snack in the form of a “ready-to-eat” breakfast cereal would help regulate excess energy intake and contribute to weight loss in night snackers.Methods: Adults (18 to 65 years of age, BMI kg/m2 ≥ 25), with self-reported night snacking behaviors, were randomized into a cereal group (CR) and a no-cereal group (NC). During a period of 4 weeks, the cereal group was instructed to consume a serving of ready-to-eat cereal with low-fat milk 90 minutes after their evening meal. Concurrently, the non-cereal group continued their regular diet ad libitum.Results: At baseline, there were no significant differences between groups for age, body weight, body mass index, daily caloric intake, or evening caloric intake. There was a correlation between number of days of compliance with post-dinner cereal consumption and weight loss (r = −0.36, p = 0.057). After 4 weeks, the compliant subjects (cereal intake ≥ 20 d) lost −1.85 ± 3.56 lbs vs. −0.39 ± 3.1 lb for the NC group (p = 0.06). Compared to baseline, the compliant CR group reduced their total daily caloric intake by −396.50 ± 641.6 kcal (p < 0.02), whereas, the NC group experienced a reduction of −23.22 ± 889.60 kcal/day during the same period (p = ns). Reduction in post-dinner calorie intake for the compliant CR group was significantly greater compared to the NC group (−141.74 ± 385.58 kcal vs. 85.82 ± 374.70 kcal; p = 0.042).Conclusion: Eating ready-to-eat cereal after the evening meal may attenuate caloric intake in night snackers and promote weight loss in compliant individuals.

Observers’ proficiency at identifying pretense acts based on behavioral cues

Discriminating what is pretense from what is real is a fundamental problem in development. Research has addressed the proficiency with which adults and children discriminate between play fighting and real fighting, and yet none (to our knowledge) has investigated discrimination of other kinds of pretense and real acts. In addition, little is known about what aspects of pretender behavior (as opposed to pretend content) might cue pretense interpretations. In two experiments, 8–20 s clips showing pretense and real snack behaviors were presented to adult and child participants. All participants distinguished between pretense and real behaviors at better than chance level. Furthermore, certain features (specific looking patterns and mistimed behaviors) were most prominent in the videotapes that were most often correctly identified. This provides empirical support for the suggestion that these cues, as opposed to more commonly cited cues, like smiles, might serve as important indicators of pretense for children and adults.

The effect of participation in the WIC program on preschoolers' diets

Objective To evaluate nutrient, food intake, and snacking behavior by participation in the WIC (Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children) program. Study design Secondary data analysis of a nationally representative cross-sectional survey conducted by USDA in 1994 to 1996 and 1998. Methods Statistical analysis was performed correcting for sample design effects and weighting for children in two income groups (<130%, n = 1772 and 130% to 185% of poverty, n = 689). Results Among WIC participants, the prevalence of snacking was significantly lower (68%) compared with nonparticipants (72%) (χ 2 = 5.9, P = .01). For those <130% of poverty, WIC had a beneficial effect on the intake of fat, carbohydrates, added sugar, and fruit from the total diet as well as on added sugar from snacks. These were independent of food stamp participation. For those with higher incomes, the beneficial effects were limited to added sugar, iron density, and fruit intake for the total diet. A similar significant effect of decreased added sugar intake from snacks was also seen. Conclusions Our results are in line with previous research showing beneficial effects of WIC participation among preschoolers, primarily for nutrients targeted by the program. This study shows that the effect can reach beyond those targeted nutrients.

Television viewing and snacking

With the rise in obesity in America, the search for potential causes for this epidemic has begun to include a focus on environmental factors. Television (TV) viewing is one such factor, partially due to its potential as a stimulus for eating. The current study investigated the relationship between food intake and self-reported TV viewing in an effort to identify the impact of TV viewing on specific eating behaviors. Seventy-four overweight women seeking obesity treatment completed questionnaires assessing dietary habits and TV viewing behaviors. Results suggest that snacking, but not necessarily eating meals, while watching TV is associated with increased overall caloric intake and calories from fat. Therefore, interventions targeting stimulus control techniques to reduce snacking behavior may have an impact on overall caloric intake.

Children as consumers - snacking behaviour in primary school children

Eighty-four primary school children (the majority aged 7–8 years), from four schools, two in England and two in Scotland, were surveyed to identify snacking behaviour and the influences on perception and choice of snack foods. A questionnaire plus short interview with activity tasks was adopted, covering general snacking habits and a look at six specific groups of snacks comprising three of ‘unhealthy’ image and three with intermediate or fully ‘healthy’ image. The results showed that, for this age group, there was an overall preference for sweets, crisps and chocolate and less liking for fruit and cereal-containing snacks. Attitudes to sensory properties showed that ‘taste’ was the main reason for snack choices, usually in spite of a ‘healthy’ image belief for the snacks. Choice was also dependent on parental influence and availability. Gender and relative socio-economic level differences were minimal, but regional variations showed higher snacking frequency for the Scottish group, which also had fewer children preferring fruit. Meal patterns had little effect on snacking, but inclusion of a prepared meal at lunchtime may have reduced snacking frequency.

Type 1 diabetes mellitus, xerostomia, and salivary flow rates.

The Oral Health Science Institute at the University of Pittsburgh has completed a cross-sectional epidemiologic study of 406 subjects with type 1 diabetes and 268 control subjects without diabetes that assessed the associations between oral health and diabetes. This report describes the prevalence of dry-mouth symptoms (xerostomia), the prevalence of hyposalivation in this population, and the possible interrelationships between salivary dysfunction and diabetic complications. The subjects with diabetes were participants in the Pittsburgh Epidemiology of Diabetes Complications study who were enrolled in an oral health substudy. Control subjects were spouses or best friends of participants or persons recruited from the community through advertisements in local newspapers. Assessments of salivary function included self-reported xerostomia measures and quantification of resting and stimulated whole saliva flow rates. Subjects with diabetes reported symptoms of dry mouth more frequently than did control subjects. Salivary flow rates were also impaired in the subjects with diabetes. Regression models of potential predictor variables were created for the 3 self-reported xerostomia measures and 4 salivary flow rate variables. Of the medical diabetic complications studied (ie, retinopathy, peripheral and autonomic neuropathy, nephropathy, and peripheral vascular disease), only neuropathy was found to be associated with xerostomia and decreased salivary flow measures. A report of dry-mouth symptoms was associated with current use of cigarettes, dysgeusia (report of a bad taste), and more frequent snacking behavior. Xerogenic medications and elevated fasting blood glucose concentrations were significantly associated with decreased salivary flow. Resting salivary flow rates less than 0.01 mL/min were associated with a slightly higher prevalence of dental caries. Subjects who reported higher levels of alcohol consumption were less likely to have lower rates of stimulated salivary flow. Subjects with type 1 diabetes who had developed neuropathy more often reported symptoms of dry mouth as well as symptoms of decreased salivary flow rates. Because of the importance of saliva in the maintenance and the preservation of oral health, management of oral diseases in diabetic patients should include a comprehensive evaluation of salivary function.

Significant Increase in Young Adults' Snacking between 1977–1978 and 1994–1996 Represents a Cause for Concern!

Background. Studies on children and adolescents suggest a large increase in the role of snacking; however, little is know about changes in the snacking behavior of young adults.Methods. USDA's nationally representative surveys from 1977–1978 to 1994–1996 are used to study snacking trends among 8,493 persons 19–29 years old.Results. Snacking prevalence increased from 77 to 84% between 1977–1978 and 1994–1996. The nutritional contribution of snacks to total daily energy intake went from 20 to 23%, primarily because energy consumed per snacking occasion increased by 26% and the number of snacks per day increased 14%. The mean daily caloric density (calorie per gram of food) of snacks increased from 1.05 to 1.32 calories. The energy contribution of high-fat desserts to the total calories from snacking decreased (22 to 14%), however, this food group remained the most important source of energy. The energy contribution of high-fat salty snacks doubled. Sweetened and alcoholic beverages remained important energy contributors.Conclusion. This large increase in total energy and energy density of snacks among young adults in the United States may be contributing to our obesity epidemic.

Reported versus actual snacking behaviours: a note on methodology

Self-reporting surveys have been used extensively in research to obtain information on dental health practices, snacking behaviours, motivation and lifestyles. However, how reliable and valid are questionnaire assessments of children's snacking behaviours? The purpose of this study is to do with methodology—to compare the use of questionnaires and activity sheets with the collection of ‘rubbish’ (an indicator of the actual snacks consumed) as a means of assessing the snacking behaviours in children in primary education. Four hundred and eighty-two children aged 5 and 11 years of age took part in the study. They completed a questionnaire assessment of the foods and drinks they consumed during their morning break. In addition they were required to collect the wrappers, cans or provide evidence of their actual snacks taken on each occasion in their named and dated ‘rubbish bag’. On visual inspection the results showed that there were discrepancies between the questionnaire responses and the rubbish bag collection. When the data were subjected to kappa analysis there were in general poor levels of correspondence between actual and reported snacking behaviours. The findings from this study suggest that the collection in ‘rubbish bags’ of the physical evidence of the snacks children devour may be a more appropriate indicator of the dietary habits of children in primary education.

The influence of socio-demographic factors upon children's breaktime food consumption in North and West Belfast

Children in primary education in Northern Ireland have a diet which is charac terised by a high consumption of fatty and sugary snacks. Evidence shows that a relationship exists between such dietary habits and socio-demography. Previous work has relied upon reports of dietary habits rather than assessing the snacks actually taken. The aim of this study was to examine how socio- demographic factors affected the actual type of breaktime snack taken by children in primary education in North and West Belfast. Four hundred and eighty-two children took part in the study. Using the 'rubbish bag' meth odology as an indicator of actual snacking behaviour, the results showed that gender and socio-economic profile of the school attended were associated with the food consumption of children at breaktime in North and West Belfast.

The magnitude and nature of situational influence on Japanese snacking: The role of fruit

This study examines the role of fruit in Japanese snacking behavior. Rather than relying on conventional consumer demographic- and product attribute-based segmentation methods, this study explores an alternative segmentation method, situational segmentation. The study uses repeated-measure analysis of variance to examine the statistical significance (F ratios) and practical significance (ω2/percentage of variance explained) of individual, product, and situational main and interaction effects. Because the crucial product x situation interaction effect is found to be significant, the study proceeds by using a regression procedure to characterize 18 competitive snack products (including six fruits) with respect to three situational factors that affect snack food choice. The results show that fruits tend to occupy the morning end of the morning/afternoon snacking continuum, the snacking alone end of the alone/with others continuum, and snacking at home end of the home/away from home continuum. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Teaching dental undergraduates behaviour change skills.

This paper describes an active learning-based education tool which enables dental students to learn preventive techniques relevant to patient dental health behaviour. 2 studies were conducted involving 33, 2nd year (study 1) and 9, 3rd year (study 2) undergraduate dental students. In study 1, snacking behaviour and its antecedents were analysed from detailed 3-day diet diaries completed by the students. Study 2 entailed the students changing one aspect of their sugar/diet behaviour using self-management techniques. It is concluded that dental students can successfully (a) identify antecedents to sugar snacking behaviours on several levels, i.e., cognitive, emotional and situational, (b) set goals and use behaviour change techniques to modify these behaviours, and (c) appreciate that this experience is relevant to similar preventive techniques that they will use in clinical practice. Training in the application of these skills to their own maladaptive behaviours provides a strong educational tool based on psycho-educational theories.

Snacking habits of senior Americans.

This study evaluated snacking behavior among 335 non-institutionalized Americans aged 55 years and older. Respondents were randomly selected from the fifty states excluding Hawaii and Alaska and questioned by trained telephone interviewers using the CATI system. The study found that the majority of seniors snacked at least once daily with only 2.1% reporting that they never snack. Morning is the least common and evening is the most common time for snacking. Almost all snacking occurs at home. When selecting snacks, taste outranks nutrition as selection criteria. Fruits were popular but were chosen less often than other snacks. Findings suggest that snacking should be targeted with specific nutrition education messages that address the influences of time of day, location, and qualities of foods upon the choices made when snacking.

The Role of Diet Behaviors in Achieving Improved Glycemic Control in Intensively Treated Patients in the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial

To determine whether specific diet-related behaviors practiced by IDDM patients in the intensive treatment group of the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial were associated with lower HbA1c values. A questionnaire addressing various aspects of their dietary behavior during the previous year in the DCCT was completed by 623 DCCT intensive treatment group subjects. The association between self-reported diet behaviors and the subject's mean HbA1c during the previous year was evaluated using a linear rank test for trend. The goal of intensive treatment was to achieve blood glucose and HbA1c levels as close to the nondiabetic range as possible without hypoglycemia. Adherence to the prescribed meal plan and adjusting food and/or insulin in response to hyperglycemia were significantly associated with lower HbA1c levels. Over-treating hypoglycemia and consuming extra snacks beyond the meal plan were associated with higher HbA1c levels. Adjusting insulin dose for meal size and content and consistent consumption of an evening snack were associated, albeit to a lesser degree, with lower HbA1c. The average HbA1c among intensively managed patients who reported that they followed specific diet-related behaviors was 0.25 to 1.0 lower than among subjects who did not follow these behaviors. Health-care providers may wish to use these results to focus clinical care for intensively treated IDDM patients by emphasizing counseling on meal plans, prompt response to high blood glucose levels, appropriate treatment of hypoglycemia, and consistent snacking behaviors.

Reflections upon the functions of food in a children's psychotherapy group

Snack is often provided within the structure of children's therapy groups yet is infrequently contemplated. Snack serves as a vehicle whereupon the therapists can align themselves with the child members in a therapeutic partnership. Snack behavior also serves as one touchstone of the children's latent psychodynamics. The themes evoked by the snacks were described in a female latency age group. The author proposes that within this group, these snacks generated the following themes: regression, nurturance/responsiveness, scientific experimentation/imitation, enthusiasm/exuberance, sharing, emotional deprivation, self-titration, reparation, oppositional behavior, alignment with the therapist, role-reversal, and conflict resolution. The author notes her own process of discovery as a beginning children's group therapist and suggests further research to validate the meaningfulness of these themes.

A study of factors associated with weight change in women who attempt smoking cessation

This study investigated behavioral and attitudinal relatioships over a 12-week time period in 48 women enrolled in a commercial smoking cessation program who were categorized as non-recidivists (NR), early recidivists (ER) and late recidivists (LR) to cigarette smoking. NR had significantly higher weight gains ( F = 6.70), significantly higher levels of physical activity ( F = 6.42), and significantly less concern of postsmoking cessation weight gain ( F = 5.08) than either two groups of recidivists, ( p ≤ .05). Other findings, although not significant, were that NR exhibited lower caloric intake and more frequent snacking behaviors than either ER or LR. These results indicate an overall stronger commitment to more positive health behaviors in the NR than those who returned to cigarette smoking.

Assessing snagking behavior of children

An objective method for assessing the quality of snack selections was developed which considers fiber, sodium and cholesterol content as well as nutrient density. The method was used to assess the snacking behavior of fifth and sixth grade students in upstate New York. Although mean snack scores were low, snacks selected at home were better than those selected when away from home.