Snack Food Intake Research Articles

Preference for Energy Dense Snack Foods in Healthy and Overweight Minority Preschool Children

Snacking is an important eating episode for energy and development of food preferences in children. The purpose of this study was to describe the quality and quantity of snack intake in minority preschool children enrolled in the Head Start Program in four centers in Detroit, Michigan, and investigate differences by child weight status. This secondary data analysis used anthropometric and snack time food observation data from a convenience sample of 58 children (43% girls, 46±7.85 months old). BMI‐for‐age percentiles were used to separate children into weight categories according to CDC guidelines. Snack intake data (servings/snack) was converted into USDA food group portions and averaged for each child. Based on BMI‐for‐age percentiles, 70.7% of the sample was under/healthy weight and 29.3% was overweight/obese. Average snack time intakes of milk (0.74±0.33) and combined fruits/vegetables (0.77±0.33) were significantly lower than one USDA snack serving, while average intakes of energy dense foods such as grains (1.99±0.89), meat/meat alternates (2.20±1.91) and other foods (1.43±1.06) were significantly higher than one serving (p蠄0.05). Children ate more when offered canned fruits versus fresh fruits (0.93±0.57 vs. 0.65±0.37, p=0.007). Except for a significantly higher milk intake in the under/healthy weight group compared to the overweight/obese group (0.81±0.34 vs. 0.58±0.24, p=0.005], no relationship was found between snack food intake and weight category. A preference for energy dense foods was observed. Continued efforts should be made to provide nutrient dense foods at the preschool settings to promote healthier food habits.
AC support: NIH/NIGMS R25 GM061347

A parent‐based intervention to promote healthy eating and active behaviours in pre‐school children: evaluation of theMEND2–4 randomized controlled trial

There is a paucity of studies evaluating targeted obesity prevention interventions in pre-school children. We conducted a randomized controlled trial to evaluate the efficacy of a parent-based obesity prevention intervention for pre-schoolers - MEND (Mind, Exercise, Nutrition … Do It!) 2-4 on child diet, eating habits, physical activity/sedentary behaviours, and body mass index (BMI). Parent-child dyads attended 10 weekly 90-min workshops relating to nutrition, physical activity and behaviours, including guided active play and healthy snack time. Assessments were conducted at baseline, immediately post-intervention, and 6 and 12 months post-intervention; child intake of vegetables, fruit, beverages, processed snack foods, fussiness, satiety responsiveness, physical activity, sedentary behaviour and neophobia were assessed via parent proxy report. Parent and child height and weight were measured. Two hundred one parent-child dyads were randomized to intervention (n = 104) and control (n = 97). Baseline mean child age was 2.7 (standard deviation [SD] 0.6) years, and child BMI-for-age z-score (World Health Organization) was 0.66 (SD 0.88). We found significant positive group effects for vegetable (P = 0.01) and snack food (P = 0.03) intake, and satiety responsiveness (P = 0.047) immediately post-intervention. At 12 months follow-up, intervention children exhibited less neophobia (P = 0.03) than controls. Future research should focus on additional strategies to support parents to continue positive behaviour change. ACTRN12610000200088.

Combined effects of cognitive bias for food cues and poor inhibitory control on unhealthy food intake

The present study aimed to investigate the combined effects of cognitive bias (attentional and approach biases) and inhibitory control on unhealthy snack food intake. Cognitive biases reflect automatic processing, while inhibitory control is an important component of controlled processing. Participants were 146 undergraduate women who completed a dot probe task to assess attentional bias and an approach-avoidance task to assess approach bias. Inhibitory control was measured with a food-specific go/no-go task. Unhealthy snack food intake was measured using a so-called “taste test”. There was a significant interaction between approach bias and inhibitory control on unhealthy snack food intake. Specifically, participants who showed a strong approach bias combined with low inhibitory control consumed the most snack food. Theoretically, the results support contemporary dual-process models which propose that behaviour is guided by both automatic and controlled processing systems. At a practical level, the results offer potential scope for an intervention that combines re-training of both automatic and controlled processing.

Ecological momentary assessment of environmental and personal factors and snack food intake in African American women

This study examined contributions of environmental and personal factors (specifically, food availability and expense, daily hassles, self-efficacy, positive and negative affect) to within-person and between-person variations in snack food intake in 100 African American women. Participants were signaled at random five times daily for seven days to complete a survey on a study-provided smartphone. Women reported consuming snack foods at 35.2% of signals. Easier food availability accounting for one's usual level was associated with higher snack food intake. Being near outlets that predominately sell snacks (e.g., convenience stores), while accounting for one's usual proximity to them, was associated with higher snack food intake. Accounting for one's usual daily hassle level, we found that on days with more frequent daily hassles snack food intake was higher. The positive association between within-person daily hassles frequency and snack food intake was stronger when foods were easily available. Public and private policies to curb ubiquitous food availability and mobile health interventions that take into account time-varying influences on food choices and provide real-time assistance in dealing with easy food availability and coping with stressors may be beneficial in improving African American women's day to day food choices.

Eating 'attentively' reduces later energy consumption in overweight and obese females.

Attentional and memory processes underpin appetite control, but whether encouraging overweight individuals to eat more 'attentively' can promote reductions in energy consumption is unclear. In the present study with a between-subjects design, a total of forty-eight overweight and obese females consumed a fixed lunchtime meal. Their ad libitum energy intake of high-energy snack food was observed during a second laboratory session that occurred later that day. In the focused-attention condition, participants ate their lunch while listening to audio instructions that encouraged them to pay attention to the food being eaten. In a control condition, participants ate while listening to an audio book with a neutral (non-food-related) content. To test whether focused attention influenced food intake via enhancing the memory of the earlier consumed meal, we measured the participants' memory of their lunchtime meal. Ad libitum snack intake was approximately 30 % lower for participants in the focused-attention condition than for those in the control condition, and this difference was statistically significant. There was limited evidence that attention decreased later food intake by enhancing memory representation of the earlier consumed meal. Eating attentively can lead to a substantial decrease in later energy intake in overweight and obese individuals. Behavioural strategies that encourage a more 'attentive' way of eating could promote sustained reductions in energy intake and weight loss.

Candy vs. snacks: parent and child discussions of characteristics that define candy and snack foods (1022.4)

Despite an increasing focus on the intake of snack foods, not much research has studied variations in parents’ and children’s definitions, categorizations, and conceptualizations of candy and other snack foods. Focus groups with parents (n=35) and structured interviews with children aged 5‐8 (n=38) were conducted to examine their views and perceptions around candy and other snack foods. Parents and their children also completed a card sort task with 39 images of snack foods and candies, in which they were asked to group similar foods together. Food groupings were analyzed in Syncaps (Syntagam Ltd., UK) using hierarchical clustering. Results for the card sort tasks revealed that both parents and children separated foods traditionally viewed as candy (e.g. chocolate, lollipops) from other snack foods (cookies, chips, and natural snacks), and often grouped the candies into categories labeled “chocolate” or “candy”. When asked for characteristics that define candy in relation to other snack foods, parents tended to say that candy was less healthy, had artificial coloring and flavoring, had higher sugar content and sweetness, or had chewy, hard, or crunchy textures; data from children revealed both similarities and differences from their parents’ views on candy. Candy is considered qualitatively distinct from other snack foods by parents and children based on its nutritional and compositional characteristics. These findings suggest the need to separate candy from snack foods in diet assessment tools to better capture candy and snack consumption.Grant Funding Source: USDA 2011‐67001‐30117 Childhood Obesity Prevention Training Program

Snack food intake in ad libitum fed rats is triggered by the combination of fat and carbohydrates.

Snack food like potato chips substantially contributes to energy intake in humans. In contrast to basic food, snacks are consumed additionally to other meals and may thereby lead to non-homeostatic energy intake. Snack food is also frequently associated with hedonic hyperphagia, a food intake independent from hunger. Analysis of brain activity patterns by manganese-enhanced MRI has previously revealed that the intake of potato chips in ad libitum fed rats strongly activates the reward system of the rat brain, which may lead to hedonic hyperphagia. The purpose of the present study was to develop a two-choice preference test to identify molecular determinants of snack food triggering extra food intake in ad libitum fed rats. Different kinds of test food were presented three times a day for 10 min each time. To minimize the influence of organoleptic properties, each test food was applied in a homogenous mixture with standard chow. Food intake as well as food intake-related locomotor activity were analyzed to evaluate the effects induced by the test foods in the two-choice preference test. In summary, fat (F), carbohydrates (CH), and a mixture of fat and carbohydrates (FCH) led to a higher food intake compared to standard chow. Notably, potato chip test food (PC) was highly significantly preferred over standard chow (STD) and also over their single main macronutrients F and CH. Only FCH induced an intake comparable to PC. Despite its low energy density, fat-free potato chip test food (ffPC) was also significantly preferred over STD and CH, but not over F, FCH, and PC. Thus, it can be concluded that the combination of fat and carbohydrates is a major molecular determinant of potato chips triggering hedonic hyperphagia. The applied two-choice preference test will facilitate future studies on stimulating and suppressive effects of other food components on non-homeostatic food intake.

Food reward sensitivity predicts overconsumption of high-fat snack food

Overconsumption of snack foods has been linked to rising rates of obesity, with our ‘obesogenic’ environment and its abundance of palatable, high-calorie foods and associated cues especially implicated. However, it is clear that some individuals are particularly susceptible to overconsumption and weight gain. It was hypothesised that individuals sensitive to the rewarding properties of palatable foods, and associated stimuli, would show elevated consumption. Snack food intake was measured in 50 adults (mean age 34.5 years, BMI 23.9 kg/m 2 , 56% female) in a repeated measures design, both with and without a ‘food cue’. Trait (BIS/BAS scales), behavioural (computerised CARROT) and food reward were assessed. Sensitivity to food reward, but not generalised reward, was positively associated with snack food intake. This relationship was not affected by the presence of a food cue. Findings are discussed in the context of implications for weight management.

Trait and behavioural motor control is associated with resistance to overconsumption

While overall obesity rates are rising, a minority of individuals appear to resist overconsumption and remain lean in spite of an ‘obesogenic’ environment. Studying the factors hypothesised to underpin behaviours associated with resistance to overconsumption may inform weight management strategies in an adverse environment. Trait (BIS-11) and behavioural (response inhibition, GoStop) self control were assessed in the laboratory. Snack food consumption was measured covertly via a sham taste test. Lack of motor control was positively correlated ( r = .32, p <. 05) and successful response inhibition was negatively correlated ( r = −.35, p <. 05) with snack food intake. Low motor control was also associated with further food intake when satiated ( r = .39, p < .01). These relationships were independent of self-reported palatability and perceived reward value of the food. Motor control may be an important factor implicated in ‘mindless’ eating in an environment abundant in palatable, energy-dense snack foods.

Resisting temptation of unhealthy food: interaction between temptation-elicited goal activation and self-control

Counteractive control theory suggests that the cognitive accessibility of a goal in response to a temptation cue predicts self-regulation of behaviour consistent with that goal. The current study provided a novel test of this effect in the eating domain, exploring the moderating role of trait self-control. A sample of 124 women (18–25 years) completed a lexical decision task to assess cognitive accessibility of the weight-management goal after food temptation priming. Eating self-regulation was operationalised as unhealthy snack food intake measured in a task disguised as a taste-test. Participants completed trait self-control and temptation experience intensity measures. Cognitive accessibility predicted lower food intake, but only among high self-control participants. The relationship was mediated by temptation experience intensity: participants with high cognitive accessibility felt less tempted, and subsequently ate less food. Results suggest that changing the processes underlying the temptation experience, rather than the cognitive accessibility of a goal may more effectively enhance self-regulation among low self-control individuals.

Prompting healthier eating: Testing the use of health and social norm based messages.

Health based messages are commonly used to promote fruit and vegetable intake, but are limited in their effectiveness. Social norm messages, which suggest other people are eating healthily, may be more effective. Our aim was to compare the effect on food selection of a message containing health related information about fruit and vegetable consumption with a message containing social normative information about consumption of fruit and vegetables. In two laboratory studies, predominantly young female adult students were exposed to a health or social norm message about fruit and vegetables. In Study 1, lunch meal food selections and intake were assessed and in Study 2, snack food selections and intake were assessed. Study 1 examined the effect of a descriptive social norm (information about what others are eating) versus a health message and Study 2 examined the effect of both a descriptive norm and an injunctive norm message (information about what others approve of) versus a health message. In Study 1, exposure to a descriptive social norm message resulted in significantly more vegetables being selected and eaten than exposure to a health message. In Study 2, exposure to a descriptive social norm message resulted in significantly more fruit and vegetables and less high energy dense snack food being selected and eaten than exposure to a health message. There was no effect of exposure to the injunctive norm message. In both studies, significant differences between the social norm and health message conditions were observed in low but not high usual consumers of fruit and vegetables. For the promotion of healthy eating, social norm messages may be more effective than health messages for consumers failing to adhere to dietary guidelines.

Parent Support Improves Weight Loss in Adolescents and Young Adults with Down Syndrome

To assess whether parent training in behavioral intervention, combined with a 16-session nutrition and activity education program, would improve weight loss relative to nutrition and activity education alone in adolescents and young adults with Down syndrome. Twenty-one patients with Down syndrome aged 13-26 years with a body mass index ≥ 85 th percentile were enrolled and randomized to a 6-month nutrition and activity education intervention (n = 10) or to a nutrition and activity education+behaviorial intervention (n = 11), and followed for 6 months after the active intervention period (1-year follow-up). The primary outcome measure was body weight; secondary outcomes included percentage body fat by bioelectric impedance; intake of fruits, vegetables, and energy-dense low-nutrient snack food (treats) by 3-day food record; and moderate/vigorous physical activity by accelerometry. At 6 months, mean body weight in the nutrition and activity education+behavioral intervention group was 3.2 kg lower than that in the nutrition and activity education group (95% CI, 1.0-5.5 kg; P = .005). Mean group differences were sustained at 1 year (3.6 kg; 95% CI, 1.4-5.9 kg; P = .002). At 6 months, moderate/vigorous physical activity time increased by an average of 18 minutes/day compared with baseline in the nutrition and activity education+behavioral intervention group (P = .01) and decreased by 7 minutes/day in the nutrition and activity education group (P = .30). These changes were largely maintained at 1 year, but were not statistically significant. Vegetable intake in the nutrition and activity education+behavioral intervention group exceeded that in the nutrition and activity education group by a mean of 1.6 servings at 1 year (P = .009), but not at 6 months. No between-group differences were observed for percentage body fat or consumption of fruits or treats. Parent-supported behavioral intervention appears to be a successful adjunct to a 6-month nutrition education intervention in achieving weight loss in adolescents and young adults with Down syndrome.

Neighborhood food environment role in modifying psychosocial stress–diet relationships

Exposure to highly palatable foods may increase eating in response to stress, but this behavioral response has not been examined in relation to the neighborhood food environment. This study examined whether the neighborhood food environment modified relationships between psychosocial stress and dietary behaviors. Probability-sample survey (n=460) and in-person food environment audit data were used. Dietary behaviors were measured using 17 snack food items and a single eating-out-of-home item. Chronic stress was derived from five subscales; major life events was a count of nine items. The neighborhood food environment was measured as availability of large grocery stores, small grocery stores, and convenience stores, as well as proportion of restaurants that were fast food. Two-level hierarchical regression models were estimated. Snack food intake was positively associated with convenience store availability and negatively associated with large grocery store availability. The measures of chronic stress and major life events were generally not associated with either dietary behavior overall, although Latinos were less likely to eat out at high levels of major life events than African Americans. Stress-neighborhood food environment interactions were not statistically significant. Important questions remain regarding the role of the neighborhood food environment in the stress–diet relationship that warrant further investigation.

Manganese-Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Imaging for Mapping of Whole Brain Activity Patterns Associated with the Intake of Snack Food in Ad Libitum Fed Rats

Non-homeostatic hyperphagia, which is a major contributor to obesity-related hyperalimentation, is associated with the diet’s molecular composition influencing, for example, the energy content. Thus, specific food items such as snack food may induce food intake independent from the state of satiety. To elucidate mechanisms how snack food may induce non-homeostatic food intake, it was tested if manganese-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MEMRI) was suitable for mapping the whole brain activity related to standard and snack food intake under normal behavioral situation. Application of the MnCl2 solution by osmotic pumps ensured that food intake was not significantly affected by the treatment. After z-score normalization and a non-affine three-dimensional registration to a rat brain atlas, significantly different grey values of 80 predefined brain structures were recorded in ad libitum fed rats after the intake of potato chips compared to standard chow at the group level. Ten of these areas had previously been connected to food intake, in particular to hyperphagia (e.g. dorsomedial hypothalamus or the anterior paraventricular thalamic nucleus) or to the satiety system (e.g. arcuate hypothalamic nucleus or solitary tract); 27 areas were related to reward/addiction including the core and shell of the nucleus accumbens, the ventral pallidum and the ventral striatum (caudate and putamen). Eleven areas associated to sleep displayed significantly reduced Mn2+-accumulation and six areas related to locomotor activity showed significantly increased Mn2+-accumulation after the intake of potato chips. The latter changes were associated with an observed significantly higher locomotor activity. Osmotic pump-assisted MEMRI proved to be a promising technique for functional mapping of whole brain activity patterns associated to nutritional intake under normal behavior.

Sociocultural pressures and adolescent eating in the absence of hunger

Parental feeding practices and sociocultural pressures theoretically influence eating behavior. Yet, whether these factors relate to eating in the absence of hunger (EAH) is unknown. We assessed if sociocultural pressures were associated with EAH among 90 adolescents (Mage=15.27, SD=1.39; 48% female). Parents completed the Child Feeding Questionnaire. Adolescents completed the Perceived Sociocultural Pressures Scale, Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-3, and Multidimensional Body Self-Relations Questionnaire-Appearance Scales. On two occasions, EAH was assessed as snack food intake after adolescents ate to satiety. Controlling for body composition and demographics, parental restriction and family pressure to be thin were associated with greater EAH. Media pressure was related to more EAH in girls. Appearance orientation and preoccupation with becoming overweight mediated links between sociocultural pressures and EAH. Findings support the notion that sociocultural pressures and their links to body image may contribute to the course of disinhibited eating behaviors during adolescence.

The effect of playing advergames that promote energy-dense snacks or fruit on actual food intake among children

Previous studies have focused on the effects of television advertising on the energy intake of children. However, the rapidly changing food-marketing landscape requires research to measure the effects of nontraditional forms of marketing on the health-related behaviors of children. The main aim of this study was to examine the effect of advergames that promote energy-dense snacks or fruit on children's ad libitum snack and fruit consumption and to examine whether this consumption differed according to brand and product type (energy-dense snacks and fruit). The second aim was to examine whether advergames can stimulate fruit intake. We used a randomized between-subject design with 270 children (age: 8-10 y) who played an advergame that promoted energy-dense snacks (n = 69), fruit (n = 67), or nonfood products (n = 65) or were in the control condition (n = 69). Subsequently, we measured the free intake of energy-dense snacks and fruit. The children then completed questionnaire measures, and we weighed and measured them. The main finding was that playing an advergame containing food cues increased general energy intake, regardless of the advertised brand or product type (energy-dense snacks or fruit), and this activity particularly increased the intake of energy-dense snack foods. Children who played the fruit version of the advergame did not eat significantly more fruit than did those in the other groups. The findings suggest that playing advergames that promote food, including either energy-dense snacks or fruit, increases energy intake in children.

Food intake norms increase and decrease snack food intake in a remote confederate study

Social factors have been reported to influence food intake. In the remote confederate paradigm, naive participants are led to believe that previous study participants have consumed a small or large amount of food. To date, there has been no demonstration using this paradigm that information about how much previous participants eat (food intake norms) both increase and decrease food intake in the same study. In the present experiment, we tested 64 undergraduate psychology students using a remote confederate design. We investigated the effect of both a high intake and low intake norm on food intake under the same conditions. We also tested whether a variable shown previously to predict food intake matching amongst eating partners (trait empathy) predicted the influence of food intake norms on intake. Compared with a no norm control condition, leading participants to believe that the intake norm was to eat a lot of cookies increased cookie intake and leading participants to believe the intake norm was to eat few cookies reduced intake. Trait empathy did not moderate the influence of food intake norms on consumption. These findings add to evidence that perceived intake norms exert strong bi-directional effects on food intake.

Study of the Dietary Preferences and the Social-Psychological Factors that Affect the Dietary Behaviors of High School and University Students

This study was conducted to elucidate the correlation among dietary intake, dietary preferences, and social-psychological factors in the youth and to examine the factors that affect such dietary behaviors as snacking, skipping breakfast, and taking a biased nutrition. A survey was carried out using a questionnaire with closed questions on multiple items such as dietary behaviors, psychosocial stress, dietary externalization, information and consciousness about health. The survey was conducted on 1,056 high school students and 1,323 university students in Japan. As a result of the factor analysis among the groups of male/female and high school/university students, relationships were found between the items of "preferences for snacking" and "snack food intakes" among all these groups. Those who like sweets and snacks tended to snack between lunch and dinner or after dinner by themselves more often than those who do not. In contrast to men, intermediate correlations were found between the item of "a meal as a diversion" and each of the items of "snack food intake," "preferences for fried foods/sautéed foods/meat dishes," and "preferences for snacking," among women who do not live alone, regardless of their being high school or university students. The item of "stress over human relationships/academic performance" was shown to have similarly weak correlations with the items of "reasons for skipping breakfast" and "nutrition intake" in the groups of male and female high school students. The less they value nutrition intake, the more they tend to be conscious of stress over human relationships/academic performance.

Television Viewing and Food Choice Patterns in a Sample of Predominantly Ethnic Minority Youth

Objective: To examine the cross-sectional and longitudinal relationships between television viewing and preferred food choices in a sample of ethnic minority, low income adolescents. Methods: A sample of predominantly minority students (n=133) completed surveys at two time points, six months apart. Linear regression models examined television viewing and eating associations. Results: Participants watched >3.5 hours/day of television, which is similar to the national average. Positive cross-sectional relationships existed between television viewing with fast food and sweetened beverage intakes at Time 1 and with snack food intake at both time points (p<0.01). The longitudinal association between change in snack food intake and change in average television hours/day approached significance after adjusting for baseline measure (β=0.305, p=0.017), as did the relationship with family meals (β=-0.20, p=0.02). No other longitudinal relationships were significant. Conclusions and implications: If interventions reduced adolescents television viewing time, such interventions could positively impact eating habits and thereby reduce adolescents risk for obesity.

Reducing high calorie snack food in young adults: a role for social norms and health based messages

BackgroundConsumption of high calorie junk foods has increased recently, especially among young adults and higher intake may cause weight gain. There is a need to develop public health approaches to motivate people to reduce their intake of junk food.ObjectiveTo assess the effect of health and social norm messages on high calorie snack food intake (a type of junk food) as a function of usual intake of junk food.DesignIn a between-subjects design, 129 young adults (45 men and 84 women, mean age = 22.4 years, SD = 4.5) were assigned to one of three conditions: 1) a social norm condition, in which participants saw a message about the junk food eating habits of others; 2) a health condition, in which participants saw a message outlining the health benefits of reducing junk food consumption and; 3) a control condition, in which participants saw a non-food related message. After exposure to the poster messages, participants consumed a snack and the choice and amount of snack food consumed was examined covertly. We also examined whether usual intake of junk food moderated the effect of message type on high calorie snack food intake.ResultsThe amount of high calorie snack food consumed was significantly lower in both the health and the social norm message condition compared with the control message condition (36% and 28%, both p < 0.05). There was no significant difference in snack food or energy intake between the health and social norm message conditions. There was no evidence that the effect of the messages depended upon usual consumption of junk food.ConclusionsMessages about the health effects of junk food and social normative messages about intake of junk food can motivate people to reduce their consumption of high calorie snack food.