Incense Research Articles

Fragrance, volatile organic compound, and particulate matter emissions from incense burning: Observations and risk assessments for household rooms and temples in Japan

In Japanese society, incense is often burned indoors for its fragrance and as a part of Buddhist rituals. However, fragrances and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by incense burning can adversely affect human health. Japanese products are not required to disclose fragrances included; therefore, the number of these compounds to which users are exposed is unclear. This study aimed to evaluate the human health risks associated with incense burning in household rooms and temples. Chamber tests demonstrated that incense sticks used in the home contained higher concentrations of fragrance than those used in temples. Consequently, the level of fragrance contained in smoke from incense used in the home (1,100–9,200 μg stick−1) was greater than that from temple incense smoke (15–84 μg stick−1). The concentration of VOCs derived from the pyrolysis of incense ranged from 840 to 2,900 μg stick−1, which was higher than the fragrance emission concentrations. Field observations in three temples and four rooms revealed that incense burning during memorial services presented a benzene cancer risk of 3.7–5.2 × 10−6 for monks. The seating position of the monk should be at least 11 m from the incense to reduce the cancer risk of benzene to a value below 1 × 10−6.

Incense-burning smoke ingredient Auramine enhances lincRNA-p21 expression for chemosensitization in p53-mutated non-small cell lung cancer

Incense-burning smoke is a deleterious air pollutant that initiates cytotoxic effects by inducing apoptosis in lung epithelial cells and also acts as a risk factor for lung cancers. Auramine, an ingredient of incense smoke, has been implicated in tumor progression and cellular sensitivity in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) towards anti-cancer agents through unclear mechanisms. Tumor protein p53 (TP53)-activated long intergenic non-coding RNA-p21 (lincRNA-p21) undertakes a pivotal role in regulating cell apoptosis and chemosensitivity. TP53 mutations prevalent in 50% of NSCLC, contribute to diminished therapeutic efficacy. However, the influence of auramine on chemotherapy-induced lincRNA-p21 expression and apoptosis in NSCLC with different TP53 genetic statuses remains unexplored. This study disclosed that both wild-type p53 (wtp53) and mutant p53 (mutp53) mediate lincRNA-p21 expression, albeit through distinct promoter enhancers, p53-response element (p53RE) and non-B DNA structure G-quadruplex (GQ), respectively. Intriguingly, auramine functions as an effective stabilizer of the GQ structure, augmenting mutp53-mediated lincRNA-p21 expression and enhancing apoptosis and cellular sensitivity to chemotherapy in mutp53-expressing NSCLC cells. These findings suggest a mechanism by which mutp53, in the presence of auramine, is endowed with tumor-suppressing function akin to wtp53, thereby aiding in combating chemoresistance in NSCLC cells harboring TP53 mutations.

Mircea Anghelescu. Note de subsol despre posibilitățile istoriei literare

In an era of overqualification, Mircea Anghelescu chose to be a philologist, keeping his call on a continuous organic growth. His profile was defined with no stages skipped, as he was, chronologically, a lower education teacher, a librarian, a researcher, and finally a professor. The four stages were defining in the metamorphosis of an intellectual who, regardless of the technical opportunities of the last twenty years, stayed true to bibliographical notes. Mircea Anghelescu was interested in the endoderm of literary texts, deeming literary history as the sovereign subject in getting to know the world. Most of his work start from the belief that writers include epistemological fragments. Hence it can be claimed that reading involves a socio-literary perspective, searching for contexts, yet without overexposing them, to the detriment of an artistic vein. Thus, the interpreter has the task to remedy, like a restoring painter, all warped paintings and to rehydrate the frescoes drowned in incense and candle smoke. To take out from a book depository an anthology of literary works, while also taking a close look at all cultural dimensions, is an audacious undertaking.

MAKNA PADA PROSES PELAKSANAAN UPACARA ADAT KALOMBA PADA MASYARAKAT DI DESA BONTO BIRAENG KECAMATAN KAJANG KABUPATEN BULUKUMBA

This study discusses the ritual of the Kalomba Traditional Ceremony as a community belief in Bonto Biraeng Village, Kajang District, Bulukumba Regency. This study uses a qualitative method. Informants were selected using a purposive sampling technique. The collection of data used is observation, interview, and documents. in analyzing a data can be done by means of data reduction, data presentation, and drawing conclusions. The traditional Kalomba tradition is carried out based on stages starting from the maje'ne procession (ablution), burning incense and lighting candles, reading prayers, shaking off the incense smoke, the tompong procession, the baccing child procession, the paddinding-dindinggi stage, the installation of kampalo and the massolo event (giving money to children) and the event ends with a meal together by family and relatives. The meaning of the traditional Kalomba tradition is as medicine and safety to avoid skin diseases and is meaningful as a thanksgiving for parents to children. From the traditional Kalomba tradition, it reveals the value of mutual assistance and togetherness, establishing friendship and responsibility.

Molecular fingerprints and health risks of smoke from home-use incense burning

Abstract. The burning of incense for home use is a widespread practice that has been shown to have significant negative impacts on human health and air quality. However, there is a lack of understanding regarding its emission profiles and associated health risks. To address this knowledge gap, we utilized a state-of-the-art thermal-desorption comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography–mass spectrometer (TD-GC × GC-MS) to (semi-)quantify the emission factors (EFs) of 317 volatile compounds and thoroughly investigate the organic profiles of smoke from incense burning across a full-volatility range. Results showed that toluene (70.8±35.7 µg g−1) is the most abundant compound in smoke from incensing burning, followed by benzene, furfural, and phenol. Phenol, toluene, furfural, 2-furanmethanol, benzene, and benzyl alcohol are the main contributors to ozone and secondary organic aerosol (SOA) estimation. Intermediate volatility organic compounds (IVOCs) accounted for 19.2 % of the total EFs but 40.0 % of the estimated SOA. Additionally, a novel pixel-based method, combined with aroma analysis, revealed that furfural can act as a key tracer of incense burning and is responsible for the distinctive aroma of incense smoke. High-bioaccumulation-potential (BAP) assessment using pixel-based partition coefficient estimation revealed that acenaphthylene, dibenzofuran, and phthalate esters (PAEs) are chemicals of high-risk concern and warrant further control. Our results highlight the critical importance of investigating home-use incense burning and provide new insights into the health impacts of smoke from incense burning using novel approaches.

Incense smoke (IS) inhalation exposure system: Physicochemical characterization, IS particle deposition and clearance in human airway using MPPD model

Incense smoke (IS) is source of indoor air pollution and key risk for diverse human diseases. Less information is available regarding controlled IS rodent inhalation exposure system and IS particulate matter (PM) deposition in human airways. Study aimed to demonstrate stable ISPM physicochemical parameters of 10 incense products inside the customized whole body inhalation exposure chamber (without animal) connected to smoke generation unit via aerosol mixing device. IS analyzed for size segregated PM emission, ISPM in vitro aerodynamics (MMAD and GSD determination), fine and ultrafine particle's SEM, SEM-EDX and PAH analysis. Using real life exposure scenario by utilizing MMAD, GSD and PM concentration after Tier 1 exposure assessment as key input parameters, ISPM dosimetry in infant (3 months) and adult (21 years male and female) human airways was calculated using multiple-path particle dosimetry (MPPD 3.04) modeling. Mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) and geometric standard deviation (GSD) ranged between 0.55 and 2.10 μm and 1.22 to 1.77 (polydisperse) respectively. PM1.0 and PM0.1 showed multiple morphology and presence of heavy and trace elements. PAH like acenaphthylene, anthracene, fluorene, naphthalene and phenanthrene were detected (0.84–143.17 μg/g). MPPD results showed higher ISPM deposition in pulmonary region and lowest in trachea bronchial region. ISPM deposition in tissue was higher in lower, peripheral lung as compared to upper and central lung tissue. Whole body inhalation exposure system showed stable IS atmosphere (physicochemical parameters) indicating the device suitability in future inhalation studies. MPPD ISPM deposition fraction and clearance data showed deep lung penetrating and retention behavior with higher risk in infant followed by female and then male. These modeled particle deposition and clearance data may be useful in risk assessment analysis of IS.

Removal of incense smoke and corollary particulate matter using a portable bipolar air ionizer in an unventilated setup

Introduction: Indoor air pollution-associated health risk is substantially higher than outdoor. Incense smoke represents a group of multiple hazardous air pollutants including particulate matter. Bipolar air ionizers have been one of the most escalated indoor air cleaning options in recent years. Albeit, removal efficiency against incense smoke and potential byproduct ozone have been little understood due to limited studies.Method: The present study assessed a portable needlepoint technology-based bipolar air ionizer’s removal efficacy against incense smoke in unventilated glass boxes (size 0.16 m3). A series of experiments were performed in order to estimate the average efficiency. The total removal efficacy of bipolar air ionizer (BAI eff.) was estimated by using empirical equations of the particulate matter PM2.5 (BAI eff. pm2.5) and PM10 removal (BAI eff.pm10). Particulate matter was used as the marker of incense smoke in this study. The concentration of particulate matter, potential byproduct ozone, relative humidity, and the temperature was monitored by a customized sensor-based air quality monitor.Results: The tested bipolar air ionizer showed a significant decline in incense smoke. The average reduction in PM2.5 and PM10 concentration was observed by 74%–75%. The overall efficacy (BAI eff) against incense smoke particulate proportion was 90% ± 10% compared to the control. Byproduct ozone was not exceeded abnormally. However, the marginal elevation in temperature and humidity (up to 5°C or 21%) and humidity (1.8%) were observed when the bipolar air ionizer was conducted.Discussion: Incense smoke consists of multiple hazardous air pollutants including volatile organic compounds and carcinogens. Incense smoke may be the major source of household pollution. A portable bipolar air ionizer could be an auxiliary air cleaning option where incense burning practices are common.

Pandangan Islam terhadap Pemakaian Kemenyan pada Masyarakat Suku Jawa Studi Kasus Desa Laugambir Kecamatan STM Hilir Kabupaten Deli Serdang

This research is entitled about the Islamic view of the use of incense in the Javanese community. This research is a qualitative research oriented to field research (Library Research) using an Anthropological approach, and the theory is Ethnicity. Sources of data generated from the results of interviews, observations, and documentation. The results of this study indicate that in Laugambir Village, burning incense is a ritual that has been going on for a long time and is part of everyday life. However, local residents are not even sure of the origin of this custom of burning incense. This practice of burning incense is carried out many times at various events, such as grave pilgrimages, celebrations of the Prophet's birthday, peusijuk assemblies, votive contests, and so on. No special equipment is required for the incense burning procession itself, and no special individual or individuals are required to burn the incense. However, locals usually delegate it to their elders or those who are familiar with the prayers involved in the incense burning ritual. There are some people who do not want to take part in this procession for fear that they will deviate from asking for the incense smoke. In this tradition, basically there are many pros and cons both in terms of opinion and the implementation of the incense burning procession in people's lives. However, the literal meaning is to invoke and pray to God through the use of incense.

Particulate organic emissions from incense-burning smoke: Chemical compositions and emission characteristics

Incense burning is a common practice in Asian cultures, releasing hazardous particulate organics. Inhaling incense smoke can result in adverse health effects, yet the molecular compositions of incense-burning organics have not been well investigated due to the lack of measurement of intermediate-volatility and semi-volatile organic compounds (I/SVOCs). To elucidate the detailed emission profile of incense-burning particles, we conducted a non-target measurement of organics emitted from incense combustion. Quartz filters were utilized to trap particles, and organics were analyzed by a comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-mass spectrometer (GC × GC–MS) coupled with a thermal desorption system (TDS). To deal with the complex data obtained by GC × GC–MS, homologs are identified mainly by the combination of selected ion chromatograms (SICs) and retention indexes. SICs of 58, 60, 74, 91, and 97 were utilized to identify 2-ketones, acids, fatty acid methyl esters, fatty acid phenylmethyl esters, and alcohols, respectively. Phenolic compounds contribute the most to emission factors (EFs) among all chemical classes, taking up 24.5 % ± 6.5 % of the total EF (96.1 ± 43.1 μg g−1). These compounds are largely derived from the thermal degradation of lignin. Biomarkers like sugars (mainly levoglucosan), hopanes, and sterols are extensively detected in incense combustion fumes. Incense materials play a more important role in shaping emission profiles than incense forms. Our study provides a detailed emission profile of particulate organics emitted from incense burning across the full-volatility range, which can be used in the health risk assessments. The data processing procedure in this work could also benefit those with less experience in non-target analysis, especially GC × GC–MS data processing.

Determination of Particulate Matters and Total Suspended Particles emitted from Incense Burning

Incense burning is an important ceremonial ritual in Buddhism. It is well recognized that incense smoke has negative health effects, which may be caused by the emission of submicron particles, including ultrafine and nanoparticles. Hence, in this study, the concentration of particulate matter (PM) and total suspended particles (TSP) emitted from incense burning were determined from 4 incense stick brands. The experiment was conducted in a room with a volume of approximately 146m3 using two instruments: an HV sampler and a Nano Sampler. The highest TSPs concentration from long sticks and short sticks were S1 (319.03 μg/m3) and N2 (439.75 μg/m3), respectively. High mass concentration was found in the ultrafine particle range for S2 (112.27 μg/m3) and N2 (117.30 μg/m3). In contrast, S1 and N1 exhibited high concentrations in the coarse particle mode at 79.28 μg/m3 and 86.75 μg/m3, respectively. Out of the 4 incense brands, N2 appeared to have the highest concentration in almost every particle range compared to the other 3 brands. Incense should be burned in a well-ventilated setting and try not to stay in the same place as the altar to reduce the risk of incense smoke exposure.

Function and Pedagogical Value in Banjet Mask Group Performance Abah Pendul

Topeng Banjet is one of the distinctive arts that is a heritage of art and culture that has traditionally existed and developed in Karawang Regency since the 1920s. The focus of the study is on Topeng Banjet Group Sinar Pusaka Karawang in Tempuran District and commonly known as Topeng Banjet Abah Pendul. The purpose of this study is to reveal the function of art and pedagogical values contained in the Topeng Banjet performance process. The performance is carried out through a process of stages namely; ngukus, songs and music, tap tilu dance, jokes and plays on an open field. The study is based on descriptive analytical qualitative data collected by observation, interview and documentation. This study includes pedagogical functions and values; education, educational content and educational tools. The purpose of education is required where every citizen or community is required to learn and practice mastery sourced from local cultural traditions. The Topeng Banjet performance originally functioned as a thanksgiving for the harvest. The Topeng Banjet Group Sinar Pusaka Warna has experienced several changes in leadership from the 1920s until now; as an educational tool, habits, recommendations, monitoring, taboos, and consequences are used in the implementation process at the beginning of the performance; ngukus or rituals at the beginning to ask the Almighty for all the blessings of the harvest and the smooth running of the show after praying the players sprinkle flower water on the musical instruments used and rub the smoke of burning incense all over the face and body of the players followed by musical entertainment, songs, dances, and dramas.

Incense smoke inhalation affects spermatogenesis and sperm quality and impairs liver and kidney function in adult male rats

Incense smoke inhalation affects spermatogenesis and sperm quality and impairs liver and kidney function in adult male rats

Effects of Exposure to Incense Smoke Associated with Impaired Lung Function and Respiratory Disease: A Systematic Review

The community uses incense (bakhour) through ceremonies, traditional health practices, and aromatherapy. Nevertheless, evidence from experiments and studies of populations suggests that a habit of burning incense makes the lungs work less well. The study investigated the relationship between exposure to incense smoke and impaired lung function and respiratory diseases. Data tracing was carried out systematically following PRISMA guidelines from January to April 2022 and registered in the PROSPERO database. The articles selected in this review were cross-sectional, cohort, observational, and experimental studies based on the criteria: (1) animals or humans exposed to incense smoke; (2) exposure to incense smoke which was carried out indoors or outdoors; (3) the selected articles which were included in the original type of article; (4) the publication year between 2016-2021 and the selected articles entered into reputable journals (Scopus and Web of Science). JBI guidelines and synthesis guidelines without meta-analysis (SWiM) to determine the level of evidence and minimize bias and interpretation of results. This study describes respiratory symptoms or diseases, home use of incense, and lung function measurement. Six articles were included; 6 (100%) reported using incense indoors, and 5 (83%) reported using incense outside the home. Respiratory symptoms and diseases caused by exposure to incense sticks are 5 (83%) shortness of breath, 6 (100%) wheezing, asthma, and inflammation of the lungs, 2 (33%) chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and 4 (67%) allergic rhinitis. Incense smoke particles decrease lung function based on FVC, FEV, PEFR, and FEF values of 25-75%. The results indicate that smoking incense adversely affects lung function and leads to respiratory diseases. The community and related parties can minimize and conduct education and prevention related to simultaneous incense exposure in the community to reduce the burden of diseases and disorders due to respiratory incense smoke in areas that use it daily.

Online detection and source tracking of common incense burning

The burning of incense produces toxic and harmful gases and particulate matters, posing a tremendous threat to both human health and the atmospheric environment. As a consequence, online in situ detection, classification, and traceability of burnt incense are of vital importance. In this paper, taking ambergris, musk, and Tibetan incense as examples, laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is applied to the online detection of smoke and ash from the burning of three common types of incenses. It is found that metallic elements such as K, Mg, and Ca are present in the smoke. In contrast, more complex metallic elements, such as Fe, Al, Mn, Sr, etc., are present in the incense ash. By comparing the smoke and ash spectra of three different incenses, the feature spectra with large differences are selected, and the data are dimensionality reduced using the principal component analysis. Combined with error back propagation training artificial neural networks, the classification and traceability models of the smoke and ash from different incenses are performed, and the final recognition accuracies are 93.24% and 96.33%, respectively. All the results indicate that the combination of LIBS and machine learning has good application prospects for detecting and online tracing different incense smoke and ash and is also beneficial for human health and the natural environment.

Electric charge effect of micro-droplets generated by electrospray atomization on removal of indoor fine particulate matter

Airborne particulate matter (PM) can cause critical health issues due to its adverse effects on human health. Given that people usually spend more than 90% of their time indoors, controlling the mass concentration of indoor PM is very important. Although many studies on indoor PM removal have been conducted, they are mostly limited to filtration techniques. In addition, studies about practical techniques that ecan be directly applied to an indoor environment are relatively scarce. In this article, the PM removal effects of electro-charged water droplets through electrospray atomization were experimentally investigated by quantitatively monitoring the PM concentration inside a test chamber. The PM removal efficiency and the deposition constant were examined with varying electric charges of atomized water droplets, and cigarette and incense smokes were used as indoor PMs. The electric charge was measured by using a Faraday cup with an electrometer to validate the electrostatic effect on PM removal. Analytical deposition constant was obtained to evaluate the effect of electrostatic force of the charged droplets on PM removal. The analytical deposition constant was obtained based on the experimental results, such as the electric charges and mean diameter of the water droplets and the PM concentration. The analytical deposition constants were compared with the experimental ones. This electrospray system would be utilized to demonstrate its applicability in real life for effective indoor PM removal.

Study on particle filtration performance of high volume air purifier: Experimental results

With the spread of SARS-CoV-2 virus all over the world, the indoor air quality of commercial buildings has received intense attention. The evaluation of high-volume air purifiers (HAP, CADR≥800m3/h) is of unprecedented importance. According to the national standard GB/T 18801-2015, the purification performance of HAP and its three different replacement elements was tested by the environmental chamber method. The results show that the particulate matter purification of single effect filter is better than that of composite filter. The presence of particulate matter generated by activated carbon layer and bypass air flow leads to a difference of about 10% between the clean air delivery rate (CADR) value for the count and weight of composite filter. In the durability test, the CADR value decreases greatly when the smoke volume is 1000 pieces due to the increase of resistance and the electrostatic elimination effect of incense smoke. The CADR test standards of air purifiers in 5 countries were compared. Only Korea mentioned that when the air volume of the air purifier is greater than 960m3/h, 50m3 test chamber is used. However, due to the different sources of experimental dust and sampling methods, this standard does not conform to China's national conditions. The analysis results will provide reference for the formulation of relevant test methods and standards

Development and application of the Ames test using a direct-exposure module: The assessment of mutagenicity of incense and sidestream cigarette smoke.

We had previously developed an improved Ames module to directly determine the mutagenicity of gaseous formaldehyde (HCHO) and toluene without liquid extraction. This study further evaluated the suitability and sensitivity of this module on whole and real polluted air samples. For this, two common brands of stick incense (A and B) and cigarettes (A and B) were harvested, and various types of incense smoke (IS) and sidestream cigarette smoke (SCS) samples were generated by lighting 3, 6, 12, 24, 30, or 36 incense sticks, and by lighting 1, 2, or 3 cigarettes, respectively, in an acrylic box. CO2 , CO, total volatile organic compound (TVOC), PM1.0, and HCHO concentrations in the air samples were determined, and all air samples did not partially fit the requirements of the air quality standards. The smoke samples were then directly exposed to TA100 for 10, 20, 30, or 60 min in our exposure module. Exposure to IS (brand A) for 30 to 60 min and exposure to IS (brand B) for 60 min led to statistically (p < 0.05) weak (below the twofold rule) but dose-dependent mutagenic activities either with or without metabolic activation. Furthermore, a short-term exposure (10-60 min) to SCS (brands A and B) displayed statistically significant (p < 0.05) direct-acting, indirect-acting, time- and dose-dependent mutagenic activities. Furthermore, our data also support that the liver S9 enzyme could enhance the mutagenic activities in most IS and SCS samples. This study confirmed that the modified Ames module can be applied to directly detect the mutagenic activities of real polluted air samples.

In-utero personal exposure to PM2.5 impacted by indoor and outdoor sources and birthweight in the MADRES cohort.

In-utero exposure to outdoor particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 μm (PM2.5) is linked with low birthweight. However, previous results are mixed, likely due to measurement error introduced by estimating personal exposure from ambient data. This study investigated the effect of total personal PM2.5 exposure on birthweight and whether it differed when it was more heavily impacted by sources of indoor vs outdoor origin in the MADRES cohort study. Personal PM2.5 exposure was measured in 205 pregnant women in the 3rd trimester using 48 h integrated, filter-based sampling. Linear regression was used to test the association between personal PM2.5 exposure and birthweight, adjusting for key covariates. Interactions of PM2.5 with variables representing indoor sources of PM2.5, home ventilation, or time spent indoors tested whether the effect of total PM2.5 on birthweight varied when it was more impacted by sources of indoor vs outdoor origin. In a sample of largely Hispanic (81%) pregnant women, total personal PM2.5 was not significantly associated with birthweight (β = 38.6 per 1SD increase in PM2.5; 95% CI:-21.1, 98.2). This association however, differed by home type (single family home: 156.9 (26.9, 287.0), 2-4 attached units:-16.6 (-111.9, 78.7), 5+ units:-62.6 (-184.9, 59.6), missing: 145.4 (-4.1, 294.9), interaction p = 0.028) and by household air conditioner use (none of the time: -27.6 (-101.5, 46.3) vs. some of the time: 139.9 (42.9, 237.0), interaction p = 0.008) Additionally, the effect of personal PM2.5 on birthweight varied by time spent indoors (none or little of the time: - 45.1 (-208.3, 118.1) vs. most or all of the time: 57.1 (-7.3, 121.6), interaction p = 0.255). While no significant association between total personal PM2.5 exposure and birthweight was found, there was evidence that multi-unit housing (vs. single-family homes), candle and/or incense smoke, and greater outdoor source contributions to personal PM2.5 were more strongly associated with lower birthweight.

A New Photoacoustic Soot Spectrophone for Filter-Free Measurements of Black Carbon at 880 nm.

A new photoacoustic soot spectrometer (PASS) operating at 880 nm was developed, for the first time, for filter-free measurements of black carbon (BC). The performance of the developed PASS was characterized and evaluated using a reference aethalometer AE51 on incense smoke in the air. An excellent correlation on the measurement of incense smoke was found between the two instruments in comparison with a regression coefficient of 0.99. A 1 σ detection limit of 0.8 µg m−3 was achieved for BC measurement at a time resolution of 1 s. It can be further reduced to 0.1 µg m−3, using a longer integration time of 1 min.

Chemical Characterization and Health Risk Assessment of Particulate Matter from Household Activities in Bamako, Mali, Western Sub-Saharan Africa

Household particulate matter (PM) is a major health concern, especially in developing regions, where biomass fuels are used quantitatively in households. Additionally, the combustion of incense (ICS) and insecticide (IST) is common. This study characterized the PM chemical composition to evaluate its health effects, as such information is lacking in developing regions, including Bamako, Mali. The composition of PM emitted from typical household activities, including cooking and combustion of ICS and IST, was characterized. These contained ions, organic carbon (OC), elemental carbon (EC), and metals. The results revealed that the chemical composition varied with emission source and combustion conditions. The dominant ions were Ca2+ (charcoal cooking), K+ (wood cooking) and F− (in ICS and IST). The OC/EC ratio for IST, ICS, wood, and charcoal cooking was 59, 30, 8, and 7, respectively. Moreover, US EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) health risk assessment models indicated a higher hazard index (≤6.04) than the recommended limit (1) for nearly all emission sources. Total-CR was higher than the lower boundary limit (10−6) in adults and children. Wood cooking activity and ICS combustion exceeded the unacceptable limit (10−4) in children. Our findings highlight the need to develop effective air pollution mitigation strategies for health safety.