Smoke Flavourings Research Articles

EFFECT OF PROCESS VARIABLES ON THE QUALITY OF SWORDFISH FILLETS FLAVORED WITH SMOKE CONDENSATE

An alternative technique to traditional smoking of swordfish was evaluated. Fillets were dry salted and/or brine salted in 30% NaCl, and smoked by dipping in smoke condensate solution at different concentrations. Chemical (water-phase salt, pH, total volatile basic nitrogen, lipid oxidation), microbiological (total mesophilic count and fecal coliforms count) and sensory analyses were carried out in order to establish which technique gave the best results in terms of sensory quality. The different salting techniques gave different water-phase salt contents, which influenced the microbial growth and the production of volatile bases. The smoke condensate concentration was ineffective toward microbial growth, but it was a differentiating factor for sensory panel. The dry-salted product smoked with 5% smoke condensate was preferred because it maintained the natural taste of fish, coupled with a pleasant flavor of smoke.

Use of Octanoic Acid as a Postlethality Treatment To Reduce Listeria monocytogenes on Ready-to-Eat Meat and Poultry Products

The antilisterial efficacy and organoleptic impact of an octanoic acid (OA)–based treatment for ready-to-eat (RTE) meat and poultry products were investigated. Whole-muscle and comminuted RTE products were inoculated with a five-strain mixture of Listeria monocytogenes. The OA treatments were applied to the surface of RTE products by dispensing a specific volume of solution directly into the final package prior to vacuum sealing. Once sealed, the vacuum-packaged RTE products containing OA were immersed in water heated to 93.3°C (200°F) for 2 s to effect adequate film shrinkage. Extending the time at which the packaged, treated RTE products were exposed to water heated to 93.3°C was also evaluated with a commercial cascading shrink tunnel fitted with a modified drip pan. Once treated, RTE products were examined for survivor populations of L. monocytogenes after 24 h of storage at 5°C. Sensory evaluation was conducted with a 60-member trained panel on 11 uninoculated, treated RTE products. The OA treatment of RTE products reduced L. monocytogenes numbers to between 0.85 log CFU per sample (oil-browned turkey) and 2.89 log CFU per sample (cured ham) when compared with controls. The antilisterial activity of OA was improved by increasing the duration of the heat shrink exposure. Specifically, reductions of L. monocytogenes ranged from 1.46 log CFU per sample (oil-browned turkey) to 3.34 log CFU per sample (cured ham). Results from the sensory evaluation demonstrated that 10 of the 11 treated RTE products were not perceived as different (P ≤ 0.05) from the untreated controls. Panelists detected reduced (P ≤ 0.05) smoke flavor intensity with treated mesquite turkey, although the treated product was viewed as acceptable. Results demonstrate the effectiveness of OA as a postlethality treatment meeting U.S. Food Safety and Inspection Service regulatory guidelines for RTE meat and poultry products with minimal impact on sensory quality.

Validation (in-house and collaborative) of a method based on liquid chromatography for the quantitation of 15 European-priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in smoke flavourings: HPLC-method validation for 15 EU priority PAH in smoke condensates

A method based on high-performance liquid-chromatography with ultra-violet absorption and fluorescence detection was developed for the purpose of quantitation of 15 carcinogenic and mutagenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons named by European legislation (EU priority PAHs) in the aqueous phase of primary smoke condensates (PSCs). These PSCs form the raw materials for the production of smoke flavourings to be used in or on food. The method complements a method based on gas-chromatography with mass-selective detection (GC–MS) enabling laboratories without GC–MS to perform the legally required analyses. The method was first validated in-house according to the IUPAC harmonised guideline for single-laboratory validation. Here the limit of detection values of the analytes lay between 0.1 and 1.2 μg/kg, the limit of quantification values between 0.5 and 4.0 μg/kg, and the values of the recoveries between 41% and 107%. The method thus could be used to monitor all 15 EU priority PAHs in PSC. Subsequently a collaborative trial was organised according to the IUPAC protocol for the design, conduct and interpretation of method-performance studies involving 11 laboratories of nine countries. The average values lay between 23% and 99% for the relative standard deviation of the reproducibility and between 24% and 76% for the recovery, which is showing the limits of this method in a worst case scenario.

Comparative evaluation of the antioxidant capacity of smoke flavouring phenols by crocin bleaching inhibition, DPPH radical scavenging and oxidation potential

The antioxidant capacity of the main phenolic compounds present in wood smoke and smoke flavourings used in the food industry was investigated by three methods, based on a kinetic and thermodynamic approach: the bleaching of the carotenoid crocin, the scavenging of the DPPH radical, and the determination of the oxidation potential. The reaction with the DPPH radical was evaluated calculating the effective concentration (EC 50) and the antiradical efficiency (AE). The compounds tested were 2-methoxyphenols (guaiacol, 4-methylguaiacol, 4-ethylguaiacol, 4-vinylguaiacol, 4-propylguaiacol, eugenol, isoeugenol, vanillin, acetovanillone, 2-propiovanillone), 2,6-dimethoxyphenols (syringol, 4-methylsyringol, 4-allylsyringol, syringaldehyde, acetosyringone) and dihydroxybenzenes (catechol, 3-methylcatechol, 4-methylcatechol, 3-methoxycatechol and hydroquinone). The trend in antioxidant capacity was similar in all the three methods, with dihydroxybenzenes > 2,6-dimethoxyphenols > 2-methoxyphenols, although some discrepancies in the ranking within the groups were present. Considering the overall ranking, isoeugenol was amongst the most active compound, like dihydroxybenzenes, evidencing the role of a conjugated double bond at para position for the stabilization of the phenoxyl radical in the radical scavenging process.

Single-laboratory validation of a gas chromatography–mass spectrometry method for quantitation of 15 European priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in spiked smoke flavourings

An existing method was adapted to the purpose and validated in-house according to the IUPAC harmonised guideline for the determination of 15 EU priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in primary smoke condensates (PSCs) that are used to produce smoke flavourings for human consumption. Limits of detection (LOD) varied between 0.1 and 1.3 μg/kg, limits of quantitation (LOQ) between 0.5 and 4 μg/kg for the various PAHs in PSCs. The coefficient of variance of the repeatability was between 0.7% (benzo[ a]pyrene) and 30% (dibenzo[ a, h]pyrene) relative standard deviation, depending on the analyte. The recoveries varied between 100 and 102% (dibenzo[ a, l]pyrene) and 69–83% (dibenzo[ a, h]pyrene) over the analytical range of 5–35 μg/kg.

Textural and physicochemical changes in salmon ( Salmo salar) treated with commercial liquid smoke flavourings

The textural and physicochemical properties of fillets of farmed Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar) treated with two commercial liquid smoke flavourings (LS1 and LS2) were examined after 15, 30 and 45 days of storage at 2 °C in oxygen impermeable bags. Salmon flesh treated with LS1 was characterized by high water-soluble protein, fat and moisture contents, plus low hardness, fracturability, gumminess and chewiness, and a low alkali-insoluble protein content. These characteristics were similar to those of control salmon (not treated with liquid smoke flavouring). Storage time changed these properties similarly in both. Salmon flesh treated with LS2 was characterized by high hardness, fracturability, gumminess, chewiness and alkali-insoluble protein levels, plus low water-soluble protein, fat and moisture contents. Storage time appeared to have a far less important effect on salmon flesh treated with LS2.

Volatiles composition and flavour profile identity of smoke flavourings

The objective of the study was to compare parallel chemical and sensory characteristics of smoke flavourings produced from the same raw material obtained by two processing methods in order to find, which compounds and/or their groups contribute essentially to the development of typical, desirable smoke-cured flavour. The results indicated that composition of volatiles of preparations SF-DP, SF-DL (distillation method) and SF-DR (reconstituted preparation) were qualitatively and quantitatively very similar. Preparation SF-ED (extraction/distillation method) differed strongly from the above by lacking carbonyls. There was a great difference in sensory profiles between smoke flavourings: SF-DP and SF-DL had “smoked-meat” leading note, accompanied by “caramel” and “instant broth-like” ones, whereas SF-ED profile was dominated by “died bonfire” and “medicinal” notes. Among analysed fractions, only F2 (120 °C) demonstrated the profile similar to SF-DP; other fractions collected by higher temperatures had no (or very weak) “smoked meat” attribute. In chemical composition, among all fractions F2 had the highest share of carbonyls (cycloten, 3-methylocyclopenten), phenols (phenol, o-cresol, p-cresol) and guaiacols (guaiacol, 4-methyloguaiacol) and only traces of syringol derivatives.

Benchmarking value in the pork supply chain: Characterization of US pork in the retail marketplace

Retail pork from eight US cities was obtained for quality and palatability evaluations. Boneless pork loin chops were classified into one of three quality categories – “high,” “average,” or “low” – with higher quality chops possessing more desirable color, marbling, juiciness, and shear force characteristics than lower quality chops. Loin chops that were enhanced (injected with solution to improve juiciness and/or tenderness) had higher ( P < 0.05) pH, less purge and cook loss, and higher palatability ratings compared to non-enhanced chops. Hams compared by their protein fat free (PFF) classifications showed that ham and water product received the highest ( P < 0.05) ratings for juiciness and tenderness, and ham with natural juices received the highest ( P < 0.05) texture, ham flavor intensity, and smoke flavor ratings. Bacon was compared by price/brand categories; however, the highest priced, national branded bacon (US$12.03/kg) was similar ( P > 0.05) for most quality and all palatability traits to the lowest priced, national branded bacon (US$6.47/kg) and the store branded bacon (US$8.30/kg) even though retail prices differed widely. Overall, there were tremendous ranges in values for these products indicating that retail pork is quite variable and that efforts to improve the quality and consistency of it must continue.

Factors affecting elimination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from smoked meat foods and liquid smoke flavorings

This review deals with effects of environmental and physicochemical factors affecting polyaromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) elimination from smoked meat products and liquid smoke flavoring (LSF). In the introductory part, some essential information are aimed at principles of food smoking and PAH formation during smoke generation as a result of incomplete wood combustion. Also, an application of alternative technology for food aromatization using LSF is briefly mentioned. Similarly, latest European legislation, biological effects, and analytical aspects of PAHs are mentioned concisely. The main part is devoted to physicochemical factors affecting the PAH content in smoked meat products, such as light, additional cooking, and packaging, which are able to decrease considerably PAH content in some meat products. The most important effect on PAH concentration decrease in LSF has low-density polyethylene (LDPE) package due to sorption processes on a surface of the plastic with subsequent diffusion into the plastic bulk. A less effective material is polyethylene terephthalate (PET), when only a surface adsorption process comes into account. Moreover, this process is affected also by other compounds presented in liquid media able to compete for the adsorption center on the PET surface.

Composition and analysis of liquid smoke flavouring primary products

Smoke flavourings are produced on a large scale and have been applied to a variety of food products for more than 30 years. The use of them has many advantages compared to traditional smoking techniques. Among others, the amount of (known) toxic compounds deriving from combustion processes can be more easily controlled in smoke flavourings. In order to ensure safe products, a new European Regulation requests data on the composition and lays down, in particular, the maximum permitted concentrations for selected polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). This review compiles results published on the chemical composition of liquid smoke flavouring primary products, partly in relation to production process parameters, and the analytical methods involved. The methods cover chromatographic techniques for analysis of specific compounds including extraction methods and clean-up procedures. Analysis of sensorial and bulk parameters such as acidity and total phenolic compounds are described as well as they are used as standard methods for analysis of liquid smoke flavourings. A special section is devoted to discussing the analysis of PAHs.

Guidance on submission of a dossier on a Smoke Flavouring Primary Product for evaluation by EFSA

Guidance on submission of a dossier on a Smoke Flavouring Primary Product for evaluation by EFSA

Characteristics of smoke flavourings obtained from mixtures of oak (Quercus sp.) wood and aromatic plants (Thymus vulgaris L. andSalvia lavandulifolia Vahl.)

Two aqueous smoke flavourings were obtained, on a laboratory scale, from mixtures of oak wood sawdust (Quercus sp.) and sawdust of the aerial parts of thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) or sage (Salvia lavandulifolia Vahl.) (8:2, w[sol ]w, respectively). The acidity and composition of these preparations were determined in this study. The presence of thyme or sage in the starting material influences the acidity and composition of these two smoke flavourings. Both flavourings contain the same main components (aldehydes, ketones, diketones, acids, esters and furan and pyran derivatives, alkyl aryl ethers, and phenol, guaiacol, pyrocatechol, syringol and their alkyl derivatives and some anhydro-sugars), which are well-known typical smoke components. In addition they contain some terpenic derivatives, such as linalool, camphor, endo-borneol and 2,5-bornanedione and a large group of nitrogenated derivatives in low concentrations, coming from the aromatic plants. These compounds contribute floral and herbaceous as well as burnt and roasted notes to these smoke flavourings and all those associated properties to these specific compounds. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Effects of Organic Acid Salt Solutions on Sensory and Other Quality Characteristics of Frankfurters

ABSTRACT: The technical feasibility of using organic acid salts for surface treatment of frankfurters to determine their sensory and other quality characteristics and their ability to inhibit bacterial growth was investigated. To be practically effective, such treatments for frankfurters should have no adverse effects on meat quality attributes, including sensory quality, color, or texture. A 6% sodium diacetate + potassium benzoate (SD/PB) treatment significantly increased meat flavor, and a 3% sodium lactate + sodium diacetate + potassium benzoate (SL/SD/PB) treatment significantly decreased smoke flavor compared with the control group, but there was no significant difference between controls and the surface-treated frankfurters when comparing salty, sour, or pepper flavors. On the other hand, the SL/SD/PB at either 3% or 6% significantly increased the lightness (L*) and decreased the redness (a*) value for frankfurters compared with the control group. For storage time longer than 2 mo, the L* value significantly increased and the a* value decreased. Evaluation of quality characteristics showed that after surface treatment with organic acid salts, no differences were observed between controls and treated frankfurters for pH, nitrite concentration, or sodium content.

Occurrence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in smoked cheese.

The presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in smoked cheeses of different origin was studied. The samples were subjected to an initial extraction of fat and an alkaline treatment, extracted with cyclohexane, cleaned up by means of solid-phase extraction tubes, and analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) operating in selective ion-monitoring mode (SIM). The results revealed the presence of numerous polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the exterior zone of the samples, some of them with methyl groups. In all cases, the concentrations of compounds of low molecular weight were much higher than those of high molecular weight. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons with varying degrees of carcinogenicity were identified, including benzo(a)pyrene in concentrations, which, although they did not exceed the limit established for this compound in the rind of ripened cheeses, do exceed the limit of 0.03 microg/kg fixed for other foods smoked with smoke flavorings. Significant differences in the number and concentration of PAH in smoked cheese also were observed from rind to interior, the rind being the most contaminated zone.

Study of the effects of smoke flavourings on the oxidative stability of the lipids of pork adipose tissue by means of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy

Pork adipose tissue was dry-salted for 24 h and then smoked by immersion in two liquid smoke flavourings for 1, 2 or 3 min. Both unsmoked and smoked pork adipose tissue samples were submitted to oxidative conditions at 70 °C in a convection oven with circulating air. Melted lipids of both samples were studied by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Duplicate spectra were collected each day of the experiment by applying a film of melted lipids between two KBr disks. Changes in frequency values of different bands and in ratios between absorbances of some bands allow oxidation degree and oxidative stability of the samples to be determined. The usefulness of this technique for monitoring the oxidation process of pork adipose tissue lipids is shown. The greater oxidative stability of smoked pork adipose tissue samples in comparison with unsmoked samples is proved.

Texture profile analysis of meat products treated with commercial liquid smoke flavourings

The texture of two meat products (salted pork loin and salted bacon) treated with two commercial liquid smoke flavourings (immersion for 30 s in either F1 or F2) was examined by instrumental texture profile analysis after 15, 30 and 90 days of storage. The two flavourings caused changes to the texture parameters of the products. Smoke flavouring F1, which is poor in carbonyl compounds, modified the cohesiveness, springiness and gumminess of the loin, and the hardness, fracturability and springiness of the bacon. Smoke flavouring F2, which is rich in carbonyl compounds, caused changes in springiness and gumminess of the loin, and of all the investigated texture parameters in bacon. Generally, significant changes occurred over time on the texture attributes evaluated.

Determination of high molecular mass polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in a typical Italian smoked cheese by HPLC-FL.

High-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection was used for the analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), in "Diavoletto" smoked cheese. Such cheese is typically produced in the Sorrento peninsula, and it is smoked commonly with different materials of vegetable origin. The importance of the smoking generation material is proven by the attention that the EU is paying in indicating the list of wood that may be used to produce smoking flavor agents. The PAHs considered are classified as "probable human carcinogens" by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for sufficient data from animal bioassays. The smoked samples contained high molecular mass PAHs with different levels ranging from 0.12 to 6.21 microg/kg. The determination was carried out also on liquid smoking flavor agents, smoke-flavored cheese, and nonsmoked cheese to measure the level of contamination before the treatment.

The Effect of Application of Cold Natural Smoke on the Ripening of Cheddar Cheese

The present study was undertaken to study the effects of application of natural wood smoke on ripening of Cheddar cheese, and to determine the effects of smoking before or after ripening on cheese quality. A 20-kg block of Cheddar cheese obtained immediately after pressing was divided into six ∼3-kg blocks and ripened at 8°C for up to 270 d. One 3-kg block was taken after 1 d, 1, 3, 6, or 9 mo and smoked for 20min, then returned to the ripening room for further ripening. Cheeses were sampled at intervals for lactobacilli counts, moisture, pH, and proteolysis. Sensory analysis was conducted on 6 and 9-mo-old cheeses by a trained sensory panel (n=7). Results show that application of natural wood smoke did not significantly affect cheese pH or primary proteolysis during ripening. However, secondary proteolysis as assessed by the concentrations of free amino acids was generally higher in smoked cheeses than in control cheeses after 6 mo of ripening. Cheese smoked after 6 mo of ripening had better smoked flavor than that smoked after 9 mo of ripening. Cheese smoked after 3 mo of age and further ripened for 6 mo had the highest smoked flavor intensity. It is concluded that it is best to smoke cheese after ripening for at least 3 mo.

Prediction of Mass-transfer Kinetics and Product Quality Changes during a Dehydration-Impregnation-Soaking Process using Artificial Neural Networks. Application to Pork Curing

Boucané is a cured pork belly product from Réunion. This product is traditionally processed by salting, drying, cooking and smoking raw pork belly in one step or sequentially. A technique involving immersion in a concentrated solution (consisting of water, salt, glucose syrup and liquid smoke flavoring) is proposed with the aim of improving the efficiency of the boucané manufacturing process and enhancing the sanitary quality of the end product. The product could thus be directly dehydrated and formulated in a single operation by this alternative process. An artificial neural network model was developed to analyse and optimize this process. The model mathematically correlates the process command variables (temperature, sugar and liquid smoke flavoring concentrations of the immersion solution) with the end-product characteristics (water loss, salt, phenol and sugar gains, water activity and pH patterns).

Chemical references in sensory analysis of smoke flavourings

A new descriptive language and the corresponding set of chemical standard references for the evaluation of smoke flavourings is proposed. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and linear discriminant analysis (LDA) were applied to validate this lexicon as well as to analyse reproducibility, discriminatory ability and homogeneity of the panel. Results confirmed that the developed methology was adequate to describe and discriminate commercial smoke flavourings. The number of low correlations demonstrates the need to maintain the majority of the descriptors for carrying out descriptive quantitative sensory analysis of smoke flavourings.