Smithsonian Year Research Articles

Issue dates of the first 83 numbers of the Smithsonian contributions to botany

SummaryNicolson, D. H.: Issue dates of the first 83 numbers of the Smithsonian contributions to botany. – Taxon 45: 43‐48. 1996. – ISSN 0040‐0262.The official date of publication of each Contribution is given, with author(s), title, and pagination. Special problems, due to inconsistencies in the sources of issue dates (hand‐stamped in a few copies and published in the Smithsonian year), are discussed. The issue dates appearing in the Smithsonian year are reliable, except in recent years when the published date sometimes was incomplete.

A review of the North American freshwater snail Genus Fluminicola (Hydrobiidae)

Hershler, Robert, and Terrence J. Frest. A Review of the North American Freshwater Snail Genus Fluminicola (Hydrobiidae). Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, number 583, 41 pages, 18 figures, 1996.—Species currently allocated to the northwestern North American genus Fluminicola Carpenter, 1864, comprise a morphologically diverse group that is shown to be paraphyletic based on a cladistic analysis of nominal species utilizing European Lithoglyphus Hartmann, 1821, and two eastern North American genera as outgroups. Fluminicola consists of a single, highly divergent species (F. virens) and a clade comprising all other congeners, which is defined by synapomorphic conditions of pedal ganglia and penis. Groups of species within the clade are united by derived modifications of shell protoconch microsculpture, operculum, central and lateral radular teeth, ctenidium, hypobranchial gland, penis, ovary, and female capsule gland. A redefinition of Fluminicola in the wake of the above analysis cannot be provided until anatomical details of the type species (which may be extinct) are obtained. Nine Recent species currently are assigned to this group. These are Fluminicola coloradensis, distributed in the Green River basin; F. dalli, Pyramid Lake basin; F. fuscus, Snake-Columbia River basin; F. minutissimus, Snake River basin; F. modoci, Goose Lake basin; F. nuttallianus, Willamette River basin; F. seminalis, Sacramento and Pit river basins; F. turbiniformis, northwestern Great Basin; and F. virens, Willamette and lower Columbia river basins. Amnicola hindsi Baird, 1863, Fluminicola nuttalliana columbiana Keep, 1887, and Fluminicola columbiana Pilsbry, 1899a, are junior synonyms of F. fuscus (Haldeman, 1841); Lithoglyphus cumingii Frauenfeld, 1863a, is a junior synonym of F. seminalis (Hinds, 1842); and Paludina nuclea Lea, 1838, is a junior synonym of F. virens (Lea, 1838). The genus-group taxon Heathilla Hannibal, 1912, is a synonym of Fluminicola. OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. SERIES COVER DESIGN: The coral Montastrea cavernosa (Linnaeus). Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Hershler, Robert. A review of the North American freshwater snail genus Fluminicola (Hydrobiidae) / Robert Hershler and Terrence J. Frest. p. cm. — (Smithsonian contributions to zoology ; no. 583) Includes bibliographical references (p.37). 1. Fluminicola. I. Frest, Terrence J. II. Title. III. Series. QL1.S54 no. 583 [QL430.5.H9] 591 s—dc20 [594'.32] 96-15188 ® The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials Z39.48—1984.

Metabolic adaptation to climate and distribution of the raccoon Procyon lotor and other Procyonidae

Metabolic adaptation to climate and distribution of the raccoon Procyon lotor and other Procyonidae

The mating behavior of Iguana iguana

Rodda, Gordon H. The Mating Behavior of Iguana iguana. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, number 534, 40 pages, 18 figures, 11 tables, 1992.—Over a 19 month period I observed the social behaviors of individually recognized green iguanas, Iguana iguana, at three sites in the llanos of Venezuela. The behavior of iguanas outside the mating season differed from that seen during the mating season in three major ways: (1) during normal waking hours outside the breeding season, adult iguanas spent the majority of time immobile, apparently resting; (2) their interactions involved fewer high intensity displays; and (3) their day to day movements were often nomadic. During the mating season, one site was watched continuously during daylight hours (iguanas sleep throughout the night), allowing a complete count of all copulation attempts (N = 250) and territorial interactions. At all sites, dominant males controlled access to small mating territories. Within the territories there did not appear to be any resources needed by females or their offspring. Thus, females could choose mates directly on the basis of male phenotype. Females aggregated in the mating territories of the largest males and mated preferentially with them. Territorial males copulated only once per day, although on several occasions more than one resident female was receptive on the same day. A few small nonterritorial males exhibited pseudofemale behavior (i.e., they abstained from sexual competition), but most nonterritorial males stayed on the periphery of mating territories and attempted to force copulations on unguarded females (peripheral male behavior). Uncooperative females were mounted by as many as three males simultaneously. Females resisted 95% of the 200 observed mating attempts by peripheral males, but only 56% of the attempts by territorial males (N = 43). The selectivity of the females probably increased the genetic representation of the territorial males in the next generation. During the mating season females maintained a dominance hierarchy among themselves. Low ranked females tended to be excluded from preferred mating territories. In this system, both sexes may be subjected to sexual selection. I hypothesize that the ecological factors responsible for the unusual mating system are related to the lack of defendable resources, the iguana's folivory, and the high density of iguanas present in preferred mating areas. OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. SERIES COVER DESIGN: The coral Montastrea covernosa (Linnaeus). Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Rodda, Gordon H. The mating behavior of Iguana iguana / Gordon H. Rodda. p. cm. — (Smithsonian contributions to zoology ; no.534) Includes bibliographical references. I. Iguana iguana—Behavior. 2. Courtship of animals. 3. Sexual behavior in animals. I. Title. II. Series. QL1.S54 no.534 [QL666.L25] 591 s-dc20 [597.95] 92-2499 © The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials Z39.48—1984.

Social, sexual, and pseudosexual behavior of the blue-bellied roller, Coracias cyanogaster : the consequences of crowding or concentration

Moynihan, Martin. Social, Sexual, and Pseudosexual Behavior of the Blue-bellied Roller, Coracias cyanogaster: The Consequences of Crowding or Concentration. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, number 491, 23 pages, 15 figures, 3 tables, 1990.—Blue-bellied Rollers (Coracias cyanogaster) occur in West Africa. They are typical of Coracias species in being sit-and-wait predators. They pounce upon relatively large prey (arthropods and vertebrates) in low, sparse vegetation or on bare ground. They differ from their closest relatives, other species of the same genus, in preferring humid or semi-humid habitats. In West Africa, such habitats are naturally forested. Blue-bellied Rollers often perch high in trees. Still, they prefer to pounce low. This means, in effect, that they are dependent upon clearings to some appreciable and significant extent. Patches of bare earth and sparse vegetation probably were few and scattered before the spread of agriculture. In these earlier circumstances, Blue-bellied Rollers must have had to concentrate upon whatever open spaces were available. They may have been more crowded on a restricted local level than other species of rollers. All Coracias are large, powerful, and aggressive. Concentration and crowding must have been difficult to manage or to support. The ancestors of modern Blue-bellied Rollers would seem to have evolved several behavioral mechanisms to cope with their problem. They may have become more tolerant of conspecifics than their relatives. In the Basse Casamance region of Senegal and perhaps other areas, they have also developed the habit, unique among rollers, of performing pseudocopulations, reverse mountings, sometimes with apparent cloacal contacts, sometimes repeatedly. Sexually-derived patterns are potentially capable of being used to control agonistic encounters irrespective of actual sex. They seem to do so in two ways. They can function as threat. They also canalize aggression to minimize the risks of contact fighting with neighbors and intruders. Adaptations to forested conditions have survived, even though much of the land has been largely cleared for centuries or perhaps thousands of years. OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. SERIES COVER DESIGN: The coral Montastrea cavernosa (Linnaeus). Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Moynihan, M. Social, sexual, and pseudosexual behavior of the bhie-bellied roller, Coracias cyanogaster: the consequences of crowding and concentration / Martin Moynihan. p. cm.—(Smithsonian contributions to zoology ; no. 491) 1. Blue-bellied roller—Behavior. 2. Social behavior in animals. 3. Sexual behavior in animals. 4. Crowding stress in animals. I. Title. IL Series. QL1.SS4 no. 491 [QL696.C73] 591 s-dc20 [598'.892] 89-600305

Swimming sea cucumbers (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea): a survey, with analysis of swimming behavior in four bathyal species

Miller, John E., and David L. Pawson. Swimming Sea Cucumbers (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea): A Survey, with Analysis of Swimming Behavior in Four Bathyal Species. Smithsonian Contributions to the Marine Sciences,xmrribtT 35,18 pages, 4 figures, 1990.—New information on swimming behavior of four species of deep-sea holothurians has been obtained using the research submersibles Johnson-Sea-Link (Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution) and Pisces V (University of Hawaii, HURL Program). Hansenothuria benti Miller and Pawson and Enypniastes eximia Theel were studied off the Bahama Islands, Paelopatides retifer Fisher off the Hawaiian Islands, and Pelagothuria natatrix Ludwig off the Galapagos Islands. Video recordings were made of swimming behavior, and individuals of all species were collected at the time of observation. Four contrasting life modes are represented: H. benti lives and feeds on the seafloor, but when disturbed it can swim vigorously for several minutes by rapidly flexing the anterior and posterior ends of the body into S curves. Enypniastes eximia swims almost continuously, briefly settling to the seafloor to ingest surface sediments. The bulbous body is propelled upwards by rhythmic pulsation of a webbed anterodorsal veil; stability during swimming is maintained by counteractive flexing of posterolateral veils. Paelopatides retifer lives on or near the seafloor and has been found up to 300 meters above the seafloor. The swimming behavior of this species combines locomotory movements of the two preceding species. An anterior veil pulsates, and the posterior half of the body flexes into S curves. Pelagothuria natatrix is truly pelagic, floating or drifting near the seafloor or high in the water column. Swimming is effected by infrequent and irregular pulsation of an enormous anterior veil. There is no evidence to suggest that P. natatrix descends to feed on the seafloor. Published data on the approximately 25 known species of swimming holothurians are summarized Probable reasons for swimming behavior are discussed Swimming appears to be most useful in predator avoidance, escape from physical hazards, locomotion, seeking out suitable substrata for feeding, and dispersal of juveniles or adults. OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. SERIES COVER DESIGN: Seascape along the Atlantic coast of eastern North America. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Miller, John E. Swimming sea cucumbers (Echinodermata, Holothuroidea) : a survey, with analysis of swimming behavior in four bathyal species / John E. Miller and David L. Pawson p. cm.—(Smithsonian contributions to the marine sciences ; no. 35) Includes bibliographical references. Supt. of Docs, no.: SI 1.41:35 1. Holothurians—Behavior. 2. Holothurians—Locomotion. I. Pawson, David L. (David Leo), 1938-. II. Title. III. Series. QL384.H7M55 1990 89-600398 593.9'6-dc20 CIP

Fossil birds from late Quaternary deposits in New Caledonia

Balouet, Jean Christophe, and Storrs L. Olson. Fossil Birds from Late Quaternary Deposits in New Caledonia. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, number 469, 38 pages, 16 figures, 13 tables, 1989.—Cave deposits in New Caledonia have produced fossils of 32 species of nonpasserine birds. Of these, 11 are extinct and known only as fossils. The giant galliform Sylviornis neocaledoniae is the only one of these to have been described previously. The following new species are described herein: Accipiter efficax, Accipiter quartus, Megapodius molistructor, Caloenas canacorum, Gallicolumba longitarsus, Tyto? letocarti, Porphyrio kukwiedei, Rhynochetos orarius. Two additional resident species, Ninox cf. N. novaeseelandiae and Coenocorypha? sp., and one migrant species, Charadrius mongolus, are new to the island. Five genera, Megapodius, Caloenas, Gallicolumba, Ninox, and Coenocorypha?, are new to the avifauna of New Caledonia. Abundant recent fossils of Turnix are smaller than T. varia from Australia or fossils from older deposits in New Caledonia. Several bones, including juveniles, of Anas gracilis are smaller than in a good series of skeletons from Australia and may represent an extinct resident population. Most of the fossils come from late Holocene deposits nearly or quite contemporaneous with the arrival of man in New Caledonia and most or all of the extinctions observed probably resulted from human disturbance. OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. SERIES COVER DESIGN: The coral Montastrea cavernosa (Linnaeus). Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publicalion Data Balouet, Jean Christophe Fossil birds from late Quaternary deposits in New Caledonia. (Smithsonian contributions to zoology ; no. 469) Bibliography: p. SupL of Docs, no.: SI 1.27:469 1. Birds, Fossil. 2. Paleontology—Quaternary. 3. Paleontology—New Caledonia. I. Olson Storrs L II Title. III. Series. QL1.S54 no. 469 [QE871] 591 s [568] 88-600080

New Ostracoda (Halocyprida: Thaumatocyprididae and Halocyprididae) from Anchialine Caves in the Bahamas, Palau & Mexico

Kornicker, Louis S., and Thomas M. Diffe. New Ostracoda (Halocyprida: Thaumatocyprididae and Halocypridididae) from Anchialine Caves in the Bahamas, Palau, and Mexico. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, number 470,47 pages, 22 figures, 8 tables, 1989.—Four new ostracode taxa are described from anchialine environments. Danielopolina bahamensis, a thaumatocyprid, is described from Eleuthera, the Bahamas, based on 13 specimens. Danielopolina mexicana is described from two specimens from the the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. This brings the number of known Danielopolina species to five; a revised key to the genus is included The description of D. bahamensis includes the first for a male of the genus. Two new halocyprids are also described: Deeveya jillae, based on three specimens from Eleuthera, the Bahamas (bringing the number of known species of Deeveya to three); and a new subspecies, Euconchoecia bifurcata pax, based on 77 specimens from Koror Island, Palau. Ontogeny is described for those taxa with sufficient specimens: Danielopolina bahamensis and E. bifurcata pax. D. bahamensis probably has five growth stages. E. bifurcata pax has seven. The first instar of each of these two species has five pairs of appendages (first and second antennae, mandible, maxilla, and fifth limb) in addition to a furca. OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. SERIES COVER DESIGN: The coral Montastrea cavernosa (Linnaeus). Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Komicker, Louis S., 1919Ncw Ostracoda (Halocyprida, Thaumatocyprididac and Halocyprididac) from anchialine caves in the Bahamas, Palau, and Mexico. (Smithsonian contributions to zoology ; no. 470) Bibliography: p. 1. Thaumatocyprididae—Bahamas—Classification. 2. Thaumatocyprididac—Mexico—Classification. 3. Halocyprididae—Bahamas—Classification. 4. Halocyprididac—Palau—Classification. 5. Thaumatocyprididae— Bahamas—Development. 6. Thaumatocyprididae—Mexico—Development. 7. Halocyprididae—Bahamas— Development. 8. Halocyprididae—Palau—Development. 9. Crustacea—Classification 10. Crustacea— Development. I. Iliffe, Thomas M. II. Title. III. Series. QL1.S54 no.470 591s 88-600237 [QL444.08] [595.3'30972]

A history and annotated account of the benthic marine algae of Taiwan

Lewis, Jane E., and James N. Norris. A History and Annotated Account of the Benthic Marine Algae of Taiwan. Smithsonian Contributions to the Marine Sciences, number 29, 38 pages, 1 figure, 1987.—Records of the benthic marine algae of the Island of Taiwan and neighboring islands have been organized in a floristic listing. All publications with citations of benthic marine green algae (Chlorophyta), brown algae (Phaeophyta), and red algae (Rhodophyta) in Taiwan are systematically arranged under the currently accepted nomenclature for each species. The annotated list includes names of almost 600 taxa, of which 476 are recognized today. In comparing the three major groups, the red algae predominate with 55% of the reported species, the green algae comprise 24%, and the browns 2 1 % . Laurencia brongniartii}. Agardh is herein reported for Taiwan for the first time. The history of modern marine phycology in the Taiwan region is reviewed. Three periods of phycological research are recognized: the western (1866-1905); Japanese (1895-1945); and Chinese (1950-present). Western phycologists have apparently overlooked the large body of Japanese studies, which included references and records of Taiwan algae. By bringing together in one place all previous records of the Taiwanese marine flora, it is our expectation that this work will serve as a basis for further phycological investigations in the western Pacific region. OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. SERIES COVER DESIGN: Seascape along the Atlantic Coast of eastern North America. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Lewis, Jane E. A history and annotated account of the benthic marine algae of Taiwan. (Smithsonian contributions to the marine sciences ; no. 29) Bibliography: p. Includes index. Supt. of Docs, no.: SI 1.34 : 29 1. Marine algae—Taiwan—Classification—Bibliography. 2. Marine algae—Taiwan—Bibliography. 3. Marine algae—Research—Taiwan—History. I. Norris, James N. II. Title. III. Series Z5356.A6L48 1987 Olrj.5894'0951 '249 86-600251 [Qk575.T28]

Geochronology of Sandia Cave

Haynes, C. Vance, Jr., and George A. Agogino. Geochronology of Sandia Cave. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology, number 32, 32 pages, 7 figures, 2 tables, 1986.—Excavations in Sandia Cave, New Mexico, in the late 1930s provided the first recognized stratigraphic evidence for a preFolsom culture in North America. This, the Sandia complex, is represented by diagnostic projectile points found in a loose deposit underlying a limonite ocher deposit which, in turn, underlies a cave breccia containing Folsom artifacts and reportedly sealed by an overlying dripstone. Our investigations in the 1960s revealed that the Sandia deposit (unit X) is in fact, a rodent deposit created by bioturbation of the limonite ocher (unit C) and contains material derived from most of the other deposits. A second dripstone (unit D) is recognized as being much older (preoccupation) than the post-Folsom dripstone, instead of being a contemporary facies as originally reported. Its absence from the deposits near the mouth of the cave is believed to be due to removal during the mining of the yellow ocher by Paleo-Indians. Paleoclimatic interpretations of the stratigraphic units include (1) a warm moist period for the derivation of the ocher by leaching from a pedalferic paleosol formed during a previous cool moist period, (2) desiccation of the ocher during a dry climate, (3) formation of the lower dripstone during a cool moist period, (4) gypsum precipitation (unit E) due to either a dry period or opening of the cave or both, and (5) accumulation of dust and debris (units F and H) under dry conditions alternating with dripstones (units G and I) and breccia cementation under wet conditions. From 14,000 B.P. on, the cave interior was accessible to man and animals. Accumulation of dust and debris (unit F) occurred during a dry period during which a portion of the lower dripstone was removed, presumably by Paleo-Indians in order to extract ocher. During the sbusequent moist period the artifact-bearing debris became cemented by cave drip where not protected by the lower dripstone. Under recent climatic conditions another loose debris layer (unit J) has accumulated during the middle and late Holocene and has always been connected to the lower loose-debris deposit (unit X). We conclude that Sandia points are definitely less than 14,000 years old and suggest they may be specialized Clovis or Folsom artifacts used for mining ocher. However, we cannot preclude a pre-Clovis age or even postFolsom. Undisturbed cave strata provide valuable paleoenvironmental data, but redeposition and bioturbation is the rule rather than the exception for most, if not all, cave deposits that were once unconsolidated debris. OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. SERIES COVER DESIGN: North American Indian design of mounted horsemen on animal skin. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Haynes, C. Vance (Caleb Vance), 1928Geochronology of Sandia Cave. (Smithsonian contributions to anthropology ; no. 32) Bibliography: p. Supt. of Docs, no.: SI 1.33:32 1. Sandia Cave (N.M.) 2. Paleo-Indians—New Mexico. 3. New Mexico—Antiquities. I. Agogino, George. II. Title. III. Series. GN1.S54 no. 32 [E78.N65] 3 0 1 s [978.9'01] 85-600237

Age determination of loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta, by incremental growth marks in the skeleton

Zug, George R., Addison H. Wynn, and Carol Ruckdeschel. Age Determination of Loggerhead Sea Turtles, Caretta caretta, by Incremental Growth Marks in the Skeleton. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, number 427, 34 pages, 9 figures, 6 tables, 1 appendix, 1986.—Periosteal growth in the skeleton of Caretta caretta is cyclic and produces a record of distinct bony layers (growth marks). These layers are most apparent in the long bones, particularly the humerus and femur. Correlative evidence supports the production of one layer (i.e., growth increment) each year in some reptiles, and the annual nature of each bony layer is an explicit assumption in our estimation of ages of Caretta from Cumberland Island, Georgia. Sections from the shafts of humeri were prepared with standard histological techniques, and the marks of skeletal growth were counted and measured. Owing to resorption of the early periosteal layers, determination of number of growth marks and, hence, age requires an extrapolation from the remaining marks to total growth marks produced during the life of the turtle. Various age estimates are possible; the most reliable are derived from the narrowest axis of the humerus sections and suggest that, on the average, Georgia Caretta attain sexual maturity in their thirteenth to fifteenth years, with some individuals possibly maturing as early as six years and others as late as their twenty-fifth year. Since the average age of maturity agrees with the results of a mark-recapture study in a neighboring Florida population, the value of the skeletochronological technique and its assumptions are confirmed. The technique is not advocated as a method for the age determination of individual sea turtles, but does provide statistical age estimates for different size classes of turtles. OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. SERIES COVER DESIGN: The coral Montastrea cavernosa Linnaeus. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Zug, George R., Addison H. Wynn, and Carol Ruckdeschel Age determination of loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta, by incremental growth marks in the skeleton (Smithsonian contributions to zoology ; no. 427) Bibliography: p. Supt. of Docs. no. : SI 1.27:427 1. Loggerhead turtle—Age determination. 2. Skeleton—Growth. 3. Reptiles—Age determination. I. Wynn, Addison H., 1955. II. Ruckdeschel, Carol. III. Title. IV. Series. QL1.S54 no. 427 591s [597.92] 85-600229 [QL666.C536]

Systematics and ecology of the sea urchin genus Centrostephanus (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) from the Atlantic and Eastern Pacific Oceans

Pawson, David L., and John E. Miller. Systematics and Ecology of the SeaUrchin Genus Centrostephanus (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) from the Atlantic and Eastern Pacific Oceans. Smithsonian Contributions to the Marine Sciences, number 20, 15 pages, 5 figures, 5 tables, 1983.—Surveys by the Johnson-SeaLink submersibles have revealed the presence of large populations of black Centrostephanus, superficially resembling Diadema antillarum Philippi, along the shelf edge prominences off the east coast of Florida in depths of 48-80 meters. Typical habitats are aggregations of dead coral rubble, with seasonal growths of leafy red algae. Some aspects of the biology of these echinoids are described. We affirm that only a single species of the genus, Centrostephanus longispinus (Philippi), occurs in the Atlantic Ocean. As Fell (1975) and Serafy (1979) have shown, western Atlantic populations can be referred to the subspecies Centrostephanus longispinus rubicingulus H.L. Clark, which usually differs from the typical subspecies in possessing uniformly black spines rather than banded purple and yellowish white spines when fully grown. C besnardi Bernasconi from Isla Trindade, Brazil, is herein synonymized with C. longispinus rubicingulus. C. coronatus (Verrill) from California and the Galapagos Islands differs little from C. longispinus and the two species may yet prove to be subjective synonyms. There is some evidence to suggest that Gulf of California populations of C. coronatus differs from California populations at the subspecies level. OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. SERIES COVER DESIGN: Seascape along the Atlantic coast of eastern North America. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Pawson, David L. (David Leo), 1938Sea urchin genus Centrostephanus (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) (Smithsonian contributions to the marine sciences ; no. 20) Bibliography: p. Supt. of Docs, no.: ST 1.41:20 1. Centrostephanus. 2. Echinodermata—Atlantic Ocean. 3. Echinodermata—Pacific Ocean. I. Miller, John E. II. Title. III. Series. QL384.E2P38 1983 593.9'5 83-600054

Seagrasses from the Philippines

Menez, Ernani G., Ronald C. Phillips, and Hilconida P. Calumpong. Seagrasses from the Philippines. Smithsonian Contributions to the Marine Sciences, number 21, 40 pages, 26 figures, 1983.—Seagrasses were collected from various islands in the Philippines during 1978-1982. A total of 12 species in seven genera are recorded. Generic and specific keys, based on vegetative characters, are provided for easier differentiation of the seagrasses. General discussions of seagrass biology, ecology, collection and preservation are presented. Local and world distribution of Philippine seagrasses are also included. OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. SERIES COVER DESIGN: Seascape along the Atlantic coast of eastern North America. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Menez, Ernani G. Seagrasses from the Philippines. (Smithsonian contributions to the marine sciences ; no. 21) Bibliography: p. Supt. of Docs, no.: SI 1.41:21 1. Seagrasses—Philippines. I. Phillipps, Ronald C. II. Calumpong, Hilconida P. III. Title. IV. Series. QK495.A14M46 1983 584.73 83-600168

Prodromus of the fossil avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands

Olson, Storrs L., and Helen F. James. Prodromus the Fossil Avifauna the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, number 365, 59 pages, 12 figures, 1982.—In the past decade, fossil deposits from five the main Hawaiian Islands have yielded thousands bones extinct and living species birds. Through these specimens, the number endemic species land birds in the avifauna the main islands has been more than doubled. There are 40 extinct species known only from bones, including 1 petrel (Procellariidae), 2 ibises (Plataleidae), 7 geese (Anatidae), 1 small hawk and 1 eagle (Accipitridae), 7 rails (Rallidae), 3 species a new genus owl (Strigidae), 2 large crows (Corvidae), 1 honeyeater (Meliphagidae), and at least 15 species Hawaiian finches (Fringillidae, Drepanidini). The present report discusses the fossil deposits and the physical and biological features the islands in order to provide background information for our future systematic publications on the fossil and modern avifauna the Hawaiian Islands. An informal listing the species found as fossils permits preliminary analyses extinction and biogeography. The major fossil localities are on the islands Kauai, Oahu, and Molokai, from each which there are diverse collections small passerines, as well as many specimens nonpasserine land birds, shorebirds, and seabirds. Fossils a few additional extinct species have been found incidentally on Maui and Hawaii. Bones extinct birds have been found in situations as diverse as sand dunes, sinkholes, and a flooded cavern in a raised coral reef, lava tubes, loess deposits, an ash deposit under a lava flow, and in archeological sites. Although some the fossil deposits may be from the late Pleistocene epoch, most the more important ones are probably Holocene, ranging from about 6700 years B.P. to much younger. Evidence is presented to show that the extinct species birds survived into the period of Polynesian colonization. We believe that the extinction half or more the land birds the Hawaiian Islands prior to European discovery resulted mainly from the destruction lowland forest by Polynesians, augmented by predation by man and introduced mammals. This has altered the distribution species within the archipelago as well as the species composition individual islands in such a drastic manner as to suggest that the data used in traditional and modern ecological studies island biogeography may be too incomplete to permit generalizations about any islands that were settled by prehistoric man. OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number initial copies and is recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. SERIES COVER DESIGN: The coral Montastrea cavemosa (Linnaeus). Library Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Olson, Storrs L. Prodromus the fossil avifauna the Hawaiian Islands. (Smithsonian contributions to zoology ; no. 365) Bibliography: p. Supt. Docs, no.: SI 1.27:365 1. Birds, Fossil. 2. Birds, Extinct. 3. Paleontology—Hawaii. I. James, Helen F. II. Title. III. Scries QL1.S54 no. 365 [QE871] 591s 82-600157 [568'.09969] AACR2

Distribution and systematics of foraminifera in the Indian River, Florida

Buzas, Martin A., and Kenneth P. Severin. Distribution and Systematics of Foraminifera in the Indian River, Florida. Smithsonian Contributions to the Marine Sciences, number 16, 73 pages, 25 figures, 6 tables, 11 plates, 1982.—The Indian River, a shallow, 195 km long estuary, is bounded on the east by a barrier island. Three inlets divide the barrier island, providing exchange with the Atlantic Ocean. Twelve areas covering the length of the estuary were sampled for living foraminifera. Altogether, 17,348 individuals belonging to 94 species were identified. The mean number of individuals and the number of species generally increase from north to south. The densities of the 15 most abundant species, comprising 95% of the total number of living individuals, were analyzed by canonical variate analysis. The first canonical axis discriminated the inlets and the northernmost (Haulover) area from the rest. On the second canonical axis, the 12 areas were arranged in a north-to-south series. Examination of the data confirms that the analysis succinctly summarizes foraminiferal distribution in the Indian River. Taxonomic notes are given for each species, and almost all species are illustrated. Ishamella apertura, new genus and species, is described and illustrated. OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. SERIES COVER DESIGN: Seascape along the Atlantic Coast of eastern North America. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Buzas, Martin A. Distribution and systematics of Foraminifera in the Indian River, Florida. (Smithsonian contributions to the marine sciences ; no. 16) Bibliography: p. Supt. of Docs, no.: SI 1.41:16 1. Foraminifera—Florida—Indian River—Classification. 2. Foraminifera—Florida—Indian River—Geographical distribution. 3. Protozoa—Classification. 4. Protozoa—Geographical distribution. 5. Protozoa—Florida—Indian River—Classification. 6. Protozoa—Florida—Indian River—Geographical distribution. I. Severin, Kenneth P. II. Title. III. Series. QL368.F6B874 593.1'209759'28 81-607104 AACR2

Marine Algae of Tunisia

Menez, Ernani G., and Ar thur C. Mathieson. T h e Mar ine Algae of Tunisia. Smithsonian Contributions to the Marine Sciences, number 10, 59 pages, 1 figure, 1981.—A taxonomic study of the marine flora of Tunisia, North Africa, was conducted during 1973-1975. A total of 169 species, 37 Chlorophyta , 36 Phaeophyta, 96 Rhodophyta , of benthic marine algae were collected from 29 sites along the Mediterranean coast of Tunisia. Of the 169 species, 57 taxa are newly reported for the country. Of these, 16 represent genera previously unreported. OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. SERIES COVER DESIGN: Seascape along the Atlantic coast of eastern North America. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Menez, Ernani G. The marine algae of Tunisia. (Smithsonian contributions to the marine sciences ; no. 10) Bibliography: p. 1. Marine algae—Tunisia. I. Mathieson, Arthur C. II. Title. III. Series. QK576.T8M46 589.3961'! 81-607084 AACR2

Relationships and evolution of flamingos (Aves, Phoenicopteridae)

Olson, Storrs L., and Alan Feduccia. Relationships and Evolution of Flamingos (Aves: Phoenicopteridae). Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, number 316, 73 pages, 40 figures, 2 tables, 1980.—Previous evidence supposedly showing a relationship between flamingos and either storks (Ciconiiformes) or ducks (Anseriformes) is re-examined in light of the recent hypothesis deriving flamingos from shorebirds of the order Charadriiformes. Anatomical characters used to indicate relationship between flamingos and storks are shown to consist entirely of primitive non-anseriform traits found in several other orders, including Charadriiformes. Most of the presumed anseriform characters of flamingos also occur in the Charadriiformes, as do all of the characters of flamingos that do not occur in either Ciconiiformes or Anseriformes. The distinctive life history and behavior of flamingos is demonstrated as being very similar to that of the Recurvirostridae (Charadriiformes), particularly the Australian Banded Stilt {Cladorhynchus leucocephalus), but is unlike that of storks or ducks. The appendicular myology of Cladorhynchus is described and is found to be quite similar to that of flamingos, whereas neither is close to storks. The thigh muscle M. iliotibialis medialis, heretofore considered unique to flamingos, was discovered in Cladorhynchus but not in other Recurvirostridae. Evidence from osteology, natal down, oology, and internal parasites strongly supports a charadriiform derivation of flamingos; pterylosis does not contradict such a relationship; and knowledge of the early evolution of flamingos and Anseriformes offers a logical explanation for their sharing similar mallophagan parasites. The earliest certain flamingo, from the early Middle Eocene of Wyoming, is described herein as a new monotypic genus and species that was intermediate in size and morphology between the Recurvirostridae and modern flamingos. Other aspects of paleontology of flamingos are discussed. Evolutionary steps in the development of filter feeding in birds are outlined. The structure of the feeding apparatus of flamingos is shown to be entirely different from that of the Anseriformes, but is strikingly convergent towards that of baleen whales. Morphological and behavioral precursors for filter feeding are shown to occur in the Charadriiformes but not in the Ciconiiformes. Flamingos (Phoenicopteridae) clearly belong in the order Charadriiformes, suborder Charadrii, immediately following the Recurvirostridae. OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. SERIES COVER DESIGN: The coral Montastrea cavemosa (Linnaeus). Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Olson, Storrs L Relationships and evolution of flamingos (Aves, Phoenicopteridae) (Smithsonian contributions to zoology ; no. 316) Bibliography: p. 1. Flamingos—Evolution. 2. Flamingos—Classification. 3. Birds, Fossil. 4. Birds—Evolution. 5. Birds—Classification. I. Feduccia, J. Alan, joint author. II. Title. III. Series: Smithsonian Institution. Smithsonian contributions to zoology ; no 316 QL1.S54 no. 316 [QL696.C56] 591s [598'.34] 80-607058

Presbyornis and the Origin of the Anseriformes (Aves: Charadriomorphae)

Olson, Storrs L., and Alan Feduccia. Presbyornis and the Origin of the Anseriformes (Aves: Charadriomorphae). Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, number 323, 24 pages, 15 figures, 1980.•Evidence purportedly allying the Anseriformes with the Galliformes is discredited. The discovery of vestigial lamellae in the Anhimidae, in addition to the characters these birds share with the anomalous Australian Magpie Goose (Anseranas), proves their anseriform relationship; within the order Anseriformes, the Anhimidae are highly derived and not representative of the ancestral condition in the order. The abundant Eocene fossil Presbyornis combines the body of a shorebird with a duck-like head and shows the Anseriformes to have evolved from the Charadriiformes. The unique filter-feeding apparatus of Presbyornis and the Anatidae was the key adaptation that led to the radiation of the order Anseriformes. The skull o[ Presbyornis has its greatest similarity to that of the living Australian duck Stictonetta, which on other grounds has been considered primitive. This suggests that a rearrangement of the subgroups of Anatidae may be needed. The fossil record shows that no certain Anseriformes are known before the early Oligocene, indicating a probable mid-Tertiary date for the major radiation of Anatidae. The ancestors of ducks were Charadriiformes that adapted originally for life in shallow saline lakes, where selection pressure for filter-feeding would have been strong. The Anseriformes should be maintained as a separate order following the Charadriiformes. Presbyornis is considered still to have had a charadriiform grade of morphology and for the present is retained in the Charadriiformes. OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. SERIES COVER DESIGN: The coral Montastrea cavernosa (Linnaeus). Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Olson, Storrs L Presbyornis and the origin of the Anseriformes (Aves, Charadriomorphae) (Smithsonian contributions to zoology ; no. 323) Bibliography: p. 1. Anseriformes•Evolution. 2. Presbyornis•Evolution. 3. Birds•Evolution. L Feduccia, J. Alan, joint author. IE Title. IIL Series: Smithsonian Institution. Smithsonian contributions to zoology ; no. 323. QL1.S54 no. 323 [Q,L696.A5] 591s [568'.3] 80-607065

The echinoderm fauna of Ascension Island, South Atlantic Ocean

Pawson, David L. The Echinoderm Fauna of Ascension Island, South Atlantic Ocean. Smithsonian Contributions to the Marine Sciences, number 2, 31 pages, 11 figures, 1978.—Two recent intertidal collecting expeditions and existing museum collections have added much to knowledge of the Ascension Island echinoderm fauna. Twenty-five species are now known from Ascension; eight are new records. One new species, Holothuria (Halodeima) manningi, and one new subspecies, Echinometra lucunter polypora, are described. Diadema ascensionis Mortensen is regarded as a subspecies of D. antillarum Philippi, and Pseudoboletia atlantica H. L. Clark is regarded as a subspecies of P. maculata Troschel. The echinoderm fauna of Ascension Island includes 8 amphi-Atlantic species, 3 western Atlantic species, 4 eastern Atlantic species, 5 circumtropical species, 4 species shared only with St. Helena, and 1 endemic species. There are in addition three endemic subspecies. Twelve species are shared with St. Helena, and both islands are closely similar in terms of numbers and relationships of their faunal components. Colonization of both islands by planktonic larval stages is suggested. Dendrochirotid holothurians, which lack such larval stages, are not represented at either St. Helena or Ascension. The structure of the Ascension fauna seems to have been determined by vagaries of ocean surface and subsurface currents. In contrast, Bermuda, which sits astride the Gulf Stream, has a fauna that is entirely typical of the West Indian region to the south. OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. SERIES COVER DESICN: Seascape along the Atlantic coast. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Pawson, David Leo, 1938The Echinoderm fauna of Ascension Island, South Atlantic Ocean. (Smithsonian contributions to the marine sciences ; 2) Bibliography: p. 1. Echinodermata—Ascension Island (Atlantic Ocean) I. Title. II. Series. QL383.35.A8P38 593'.9 77-20941

United States Women in Aviation through World War I

Oakes, Claudia M. United States Women in Aviation through World War I. Smithsonian Studies in Air and Space, number 2, 44 pages, 48 illustrations, 1978.—Women who participated in aviation in the United States from 1880 through World War I, as supporters, passengers, designers, and pilots, are presented in this publication. Rare photographs, documents, newspaper clippings, and other archival materials held by the library of the National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution, provide the nucleus of the study. Official publication date is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Oakes, Claudia M. United States women in aviation through World War I. (Smithsonian studies in air and space ; no. 2) Bibliography: p. 1. Women in aeronautics. 2. Aeronautics—United States—History. I. Title. II. Series. TL553.034 629.13'0092'2 [B] 77-19332 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 Stock Number 047-002-00023-1