Smartphone-based Colorimetric Detection Research Articles

Smartphone-based colorimetric detection system for portable health tracking.

Colorimetric tests for at-home health monitoring became popular 50 years ago with the advent of the urinalysis test strips, due to their reduced costs, practicality, and ease of operation. However, developing digital systems that can interface these sensors in an efficient manner remains a challenge. Efforts have been put towards the development of portable optical readout systems, such as smartphones. However, their use in daily settings is still limited by their error-prone nature associated to optical noise from the ambient lighting, and their low sensitivity. Here, a smartphone application (Colourine) to readout colorimetric signals was developed on Android OS and tested on commercial urinalysis test strips for pH, proteins, and glucose detection. The novelty of this approach includes two features: a pre-calibration step where the user is asked to take a photo of the commercial reference chart, and a CIE-RGB-to-HSV color space transformation of the acquired data. These two elements allow the background noise given by environmental lighting to be minimized. The sensors were characterized in the ambient light range 100-400 lx, yielding a reliable output. Readouts were taken from urine strips in buffer solutions of pH (5.0-9.0 units), proteins (0-500 mg dL-1) and glucose (0-1000 mg dL-1), yielding a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.13 units (pH), 7.5 mg dL-1 (proteins) and 22 mg dL-1 (glucose), resulting in an average LOD decrease by about 2.8 fold compared to the visual method.

Cellulose nanofibrils/carbon dots composite nanopapers for the smartphone-based colorimetric detection of hydrogen peroxide and glucose

Fe-doped carbon dots (FeCDs) with high peroxidase (POD)-like activity were prepared by a rapid microwave-assisted method and immobilized on cellulose nanofibrils (CNF) to produce a composite nanopaper. The POD activity of the nanopaper was evaluated by the oxidation of 3,3′,5,5′-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) and applied to the colorimetric detections of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and glucose. CNF acted as a support for the nanozyme, thus imparting it with reusability. It also adsorbed the chromogen during the reaction to induce a color change, thus acting as a test strip for portable on-site detection. A smartphone was employed to monitor this color change which made the whole detection process simple and economical. Under optimal conditions, this method afforded linear ranges of 6–42 μM and 10–70 μM and detection limits of 0.93 and 1.73 μM for the H2O2 and glucose, respectively. The results of the quantification of glucose in human serum samples were comparable to those of the standard glucose oxidase (GOD)–POD method. Further, the nanopaper was potentially reused for ten cycles and presented over a month of shelf life.

Smartphone-based image analysis coupled to paper-based colorimetric devices

Advancements in technology have led to the use of smartphones as biosensor detectors. However, it is difficult to obtain stable color information of colorimetric sensors using multiple smartphones owing to different light conditions and image correction operations. In this study, we attempted color detection of the colorimetric paper chip using smartphone-embedded light-emitting diode (LED) and simple transformation calculation. This method enables the acquisition of stable color information using different smartphones by reducing the influence of external light sources. Moreover, we studied characteristics such as convergence and distinction of detection result details by the manufacturers and smartphones. These findings suggested the necessity of classification criteria for the use of smartphones to achieve optimal detection. In addition, white and black references were used to set the standard for color correction of various light sources. Based on our results, we conclude that this approach presents the possibility of smartphone-based colorimetric detection in practical applications.

From children’s toy to versatile sensor: One-step doping of Play-Doh with primary amino group for explosive detection both on surfaces and in solution

2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) sensing on surfaces and in solution is an important issue in sensor fabrication for homeland security and environmental protection. Herein, Play-Doh, a modeling material popular for kids, was proposed as a versatile sensor for on-site fluorescent (FL), visual FL (VFL), and colorimetric detection of TNT both on surfaces and in solution after being doped with –NH2 through a one-step approach. Play-Doh exhibits FL emission due to the main ingredient of flour. After –NH2 doping, amino-Play-Doh (APD) was utilized to construct a FL sensor based on FL resonance energy transfer and inner filter effect for TNT detection. The advantage of APD was that no additional fluorophore was needed compared with the traditional sensors for FL and VFL analysis. The orange complex visible to the naked eye was also recorded for smartphone-based colorimetric detection of TNT. In both cases, the APD demonstrated good analytical performance for TNT. Finally, APD was successfully utilized for TNT sensing on fingerprints, luggage, and in environmental water samples, respectively. Play-Doh might be a potential sensor for future on-site detection of TNT owing to the merits of being cost-effective and versatile.

Smartphone-based colorimetric detection using gold nanoparticles of sibutramine in suspected food supplement products

Sibutramine has been used as an appetite suppressant for many years. However, it was withdrawn from markets in several countries due to its fatal side effects. Adulteration of food supplement products with sibutramine has been found in the markets. In this study, a simple and portable colorimetric test using a smartphone and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) for sibutramine analysis is proposed. The aggregation of citrate-stabilized AuNP in the presence of sibutramine leads to a color transition from wine red to blue, which was verified by UV–Vis spectrophotometry and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) technique. The change of solution color is visible by the naked eye and can be monitored with a smartphone. The ratio of green and red colors in a photo recorded by a smartphone was linearly related to the sibutramine concentration in the concentration range 5–15 µM (R2 = 0.979). The limit of detection and limit of quantification were 1.15 µM and 3.47 µM, respectively, without any effects from potential interferences or sample matrix. The intra-day and inter-day precisions were 0.8–2.0 %RSD and 0.7–2.0 %RSD, respectively. Accuracy of sibutramine detection ranged from 92 to 107%. The developed method was successfully employed to detect sibutramine in six adulterated products, and the results were in good agreement with those from UV–Vis spectrophotometry with relative error in the range −9.3 to 1.7%. A simple, rapid, and portable method can be used as an alternative approach to detect and quantify this misused substance, without need for any sophisticated instrumentation.

Development and clinical trial of a smartphone-based colorimetric detection system for self-monitoring of blood glucose.

Blood glucose measurements help to guide insulin therapy, thus reducing disease severities, secondary complications, and related mortalities. Efforts are underway to allow diabetes patients to experience a more convenient way to measure blood glucose and consequently increase their adherence to regular self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG). This study demonstrated a new SMBG system that integrated all components of a glucometer via a smartphone's optical sensing module to detect the colorimetric blood strip and obtains the blood glucose concentration with calculations performed by an application install in the smartphone. To validate the accuracy and applicability of the new SMBG system regarding the ISO15197:2013 accuracy criteria and patient requirements, a clinical trial and usability survey involving participants from different age groups were conducted in collaboration with the China Medical University, where enrolled 120 diabetic patients were asked to operate the new SMBG system to measure their blood glucose concentration, and feedback was obtained from their user experience. The results showed that three different reagent system lots fulfilled the accuracy requirements with values of 97.4-97.5% , and all of the data were within zones A and B of the consensus error grid, which satisfies the ISO 15197:2013 requirement. The usability survey showed that 97.5% of the participants found the operations convenient, and 100% found the design easy for carrying. This new system could lead to improvements in blood glucose monitoring by people with diabetes, and thus, better management of the disease.

Electrochromic, Closed-Bipolar Electrodes Employing Aptamer-Based Recognition for Direct Colorimetric Sensing Visualization.

In this paper, we adapt the electrochemical, aptamer-based (E-AB) sensor platform to develop colorimetric aptamer-based sensors using a closed-bipolar electrode (C-BPE) system. The C-BPE E-AB sensors provide quantitative detection of target molecules based on the rate of color change of an electrochromic Prussian blue (PB) thin-film indicator electrode. The C-BPE cathode, or sensing electrode, is modified with a redox-labeled aptamer that binds to a specific target. More specifically, we employed sequences specific for adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and tobramycin as test-bed targets because these sequences are well vetted. The C-BPE anode, or indicator electrode, was coated with an electrochromic thin film comprising Prussian white (PW) that, when reduced to PB, is accompanied by a corresponding color change used for analytical detection. The rate of color change from PW to PB is facilitated by a potassium ferricyanide-catalyzed oxidation of leucomethylene blue (LB) to methylene blue (MB), the redox label conjugated to the aptamer on the sensing electrode. We demonstrate that the rate of color change is quantitatively related to the concentration of target analyte, which provides a means for naked eye determination. When combined with smartphone-based colorimetric detection, these C-BPE E-AB sensors present a user-friendly alternative to traditional E-AB sensors that rely on voltammetric analysis and a potentiostat, opening up the possibility of point-of-use applications.

A smartphone-based colorimetric PET sensor platform with molecular recognition via thermally initiated RAFT-mediated graft copolymerization

In this work, we report a low-cost and easy-to-use molecularly-imprinted colorimetric sensor platform that can sense target analyte with high sensitivity and good selectivity. The platform has been examined for colorimetric detection and quantitation of a model textile dye, basic red 9 (BR9), by employing methacrylic acid (MAA), ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA) and cumyl dithiobenzoate (CDB) as functional monomer, crosslinker and RAFT agent, respectively. Benzophenone (BP), a photoinitiator, was covalently immobilized on the surface of poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) and then thermally activated by homolytic cleavage to form radicals on the surface that initiate RAFT-mediated grafting of a thin recognition layer. The molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) layer of about 100 nm showed excellent removal of 76.7% target dye in 10 min and high selectivity compared to other similar dyes with an imprinting factor of 10.31 in the competitive environment. The resulting MIP grafted PET substrate was efficiently used as recognition unit in a smartphone-based colorimetric detection method using a color adaptation algorithm for point-of-care applications. Based on the obtained performance, it is promising to use the method for the detection and quantification of various analytes with chromophores.

Paper-based graphene oxide biosensor coupled with smartphone for the quantification of glucose in oral fluid.

Rapid, disposable, point-of-care (POC) oral fluid testing has gained considerable attention in recent years as saliva contains biomarker and components of the serum proteome that offer important information on both oral and systemic disease. Microfluidic paper-based analytical devices (μPADs) coupled with smartphone reflectance sensing systems have long been considered to be an effective POC tool for the diagnostics of biomarkers in oral fluid. However, the existing portable systems are limited by the poor color distribution in the detection area as well as not being universally applicable. Therefore, using the properties of nanomaterials to our advantage, we present a simple, universally applicable approach that features graphene oxide (GO) coated μPADs coupled with smartphone-based colorimetric detection for the direct quantification of glucose. An integrated portable system is used to implement the approach. Owing to the enhanced reagents absorptivity, reactive efficiency and homogeneity of color distribution from the deposition of GO, the glucose assay performance was improved. Also, by using a self-developed app, the glucose concentrations in physiological range can be automatically quantified. Finally, the approach is universally applicable as the modification of μPADs with GO can be achieved without the use of any linker, binder or retention aid, which avoids possible enzyme cross contamination. The system was first calibrated by standard glucose buffer solutions, and the limit of detection as well as the linear dynamic range were found to be 0.02mM and 0~1mM, respectively, which are appropriate for analyzing glucose concentrations in a clinically relevant range. Finally, the system was used for quantifying glucose concentrations in artificial saliva and the results obtained using our portable system showed reasonable agreement with the actual use concentrations. Thus, the utility of the system in sensitively quantifying glucose concentrations in a portable, and repeatable manner is demonstrated.

Simultaneous pre-concentration and separation on simple paper-based analytical device for protein analysis.

In this work, fast isoelectric focusing (IEF) was successfully implemented on an open paper fluidic channel for simultaneous concentration and separation of proteins from complex matrix. With this simple device, IEF can be finished in 10min with a resolution of 0.03 pH units and concentration factor of 10, as estimated by color model proteins by smartphone-based colorimetric detection. Fast detection of albumin from human serum and glycated hemoglobin (HBA1c) from blood cell was demonstrated. In addition, off-line identification of the model proteins from the IEF fractions with matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS) was also shown. This PAD IEF is potentially useful either for point of care test (POCT) or biomarker analysis as a cost-effective sample pretreatment method.

Smartphone-based colorimetric detection via machine learning.

We report the application of machine learning to smartphone-based colorimetric detection of pH values. The strip images were used as the training set for Least Squares-Support Vector Machine (LS-SVM) classifier algorithms that were able to successfully classify the distinct pH values. The difference in the obtained image formats was found not to significantly affect the performance of the proposed machine learning approach. Moreover, the influence of the illumination conditions on the perceived color of pH strips was investigated and further experiments were conducted to study the effect of color change on the learning model. Non-integer pH levels are identified as their nearest integer pH values, whereas the test results for integer pH levels using JPEG, RAW and RAW-corrected image formats captured under different lighting conditions lead to perfect classification accuracy, sensitivity and specificity, which proves that colorimetric detection using machine learning based systems is able to adapt to various experimental conditions and is a great candidate for smartphone-based sensing in paper-based colorimetric assays.