Smart Contracts Research Articles

Secure Blockchain Assisted Attribute-Based Keyword Search for Collaborative E-Healthcare

In the age of technological advancement, collaborative E-healthcare emerges as a transformative system eliminating traditional location and accessibility barriers in healthcare services. Here, Searchable Encryption (SE) plays a key role in enabling healthcare providers to outsource encrypted medical data and search services to third parties like cloud servers, thereby reducing storage and management expenses. This intermediary approach poses challenges of single-point failure, privacy breaches, and potentially untrustworthy results. State-of-the-art public key-based SE methods use a cloud-assisted architecture that doesn’t support reliable and practical searches with fine-grained permissions. Also, such systems require additional support to address potential privacy leakages and ensure data availability at the storage server. To address these concerns, we propose a B lockchain-assisted E fficient and S ecure K eyword S earch (BESKS) scheme to enforce fine-grained keyword search privilege control while achieving practical search complexity. Our scheme employs a ciphertext policy attribute-based keyword search mechanism where keywords are encrypted using expressive access policies to build an inverted index structure. The encrypted indexes are stored on the blockchain while encrypted medical documents are stored on InterPlanetary File System (IPFS) nodes to enhance availability and ensure the reliability and scalability of our approach. Our scheme utilizes blockchain-based smart contract for efficient, secure search operations and ensures financial fairness in fine-grained searches. Search tokens are generated based on user attributes and query keywords to facilitate private searches on-chain. To enhance the search process, our secure index enables exact match for a query keyword in constant time to ensure expensive authorization operations are performed only once. Theoretical analysis suggests that our BESKS is more efficient and secure than state-of-the-art schemes. Prototype implementation results on the Ethereum blockchain network further validate its feasibility for real-world applications, demonstrating the scheme's practical applicability in collaborative E-Healthcare systems.

Analysis and Research on Intelligent Logistics Data under Internet of Things and Blockchain

ABSTRACT To explore the security performance of logistics data transmission in an Intelligent Logistics System (ILS) under the Internet of Things (IoT) and Blockchain (BC), IoT is introduced to optimize the logistics transportation process. First, BC is adopted to improve the ILS under IoT, and ILS under IoT combined with BC is established. Next, an analysis of the relationship between the information service provider and the transportation provider in the logistics transaction process is conducted to perform data analysis and to establish an incentive mechanism for logistics transportation under BC. Finally, the simulation analysis of the constructed model is implemented. The results reveal that the constructed model is highly efficient. It can effectively solve the traceability problem of logistics transaction information, and the calculation cost is stable within 1,000 ms. In the comparative analysis of system transmission performance, the model exhibits outstanding results in transmission latency, consistently maintaining an average delay of approximately 350 ms. This stability is primarily attributed to the seamless integration of BC technology, which optimizes data packet transmission paths and mitigates waiting time. Furthermore, the system efficiently manages high data volumes while upholding robust data processing capabilities, owing to the optimization of smart contracts and decentralized storage mechanisms. As for energy consumption, the model notably reduces overall energy usage within the logistics network by curtailing unnecessary data transmission and computation, particularly in mobile nodes and wireless communication channels. The proposed algorithm excels across various transmission metrics, including transmission delay, data successful acceptance rate, network throughput, and energy consumption are all shown to be the best transmission performance of the proposed algorithm, in which the data successful acceptance rate is close to 1. As a result, the developed ILS model not only guarantees low latency performance but also demonstrates high data transmission security, facilitating more efficient and precise real-time information transmission. In this study, within the ILS framework, the relationship between information service providers and transportation service providers is established through BC, and an incentive mechanism is constructed. However, some shortcomings in this incentive mechanism are recognized. For instance, during the initial stages of BC integration, there are issues of information asymmetry concerning factors such as credit, transportation capacity, and effort level. Moreover, the open access policy of couriers in the model raises concerns, as the access policy itself constitutes sensitive information, which may result in privacy breaches. Hence, as part of future work, the introduction of attribute encryption schemes is planned to obfuscate access policies, thereby safeguarding the privacy of logistics personnel’s access policies.

VarLifter: Recovering Variables and Types from Bytecode of Solidity Smart Contracts

Since funds or tokens in smart contracts are maintained through specific state variables, contract audit, an effective means for security assurance, particularly focuses on these variables and their related operations. However, the absence of publicly accessible source code for numerous contracts, with only bytecode exposed, hinders audit efforts. Recovering variables and their types from Solidity bytecode is thus a critical task in smart contract analysis and audit, yet this is a challenging task because the bytecode loses variable and type information, only with low-level data operated by stack manipulations and untyped memory/storage accesses. The state-of-the-art smart contract decompilers miss identifying many variables and incorrectly infer the types for many identified variables. To this end, we propose VarLifter, a lifter dedicated to the precise and efficient recovery of typed variables. VarLifter interprets every read or written field of a data region as at least one potential variable, and after discarding falsely identified variables, it progressively refines the variable types based on the variable behaviors in the form of operation sequences. We evaluate VarLifter on 34,832 real-world Solidity smart contracts. VarLifter attains a precision of 97.48% and a recall of 91.84% for typed variable recovery. Moreover, VarLifter finishes analyzing 77% of smart contracts in around 10 seconds per contract. If VarLifter is used to replace the variable recovery modules of the two state-of-the-art Solidity bytecode decompilers, 52.4%, and 74.6% more typed variables will be correctly recovered, respectively. The applications of VarLifter to contract decompilation, contract audit, and contract bytecode fuzzing illustrate that the recovered variable information improves many contract analysis tasks.

Taxonomic insights into ethereum smart contracts by linking application categories to security vulnerabilities.

The expansion of smart contracts on the Ethereum blockchain has created a diverse ecosystem of decentralized applications. This growth, however, poses challenges in classifying and securing these contracts. Existing research often separately addresses either classification or vulnerability detection, without a comprehensive analysis of how contract types are related to security risks. Our study addresses this gap by developing a taxonomy of smart contracts and examining the potential vulnerabilities associated with each category. We use the Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) model to analyze a dataset of over 100,040 Ethereum smart contracts, which is notably larger than those used in previous studies. Our analysis categorizes these contracts into eleven groups, with five primary categories: Notary, Token, Game, Financial, and Blockchain interaction. This categorization sheds light on the various functions and applications of smart contracts in today's blockchain environment. In response to the growing need for better security in smart contract development, we also investigate the link between these categories and common vulnerabilities. Our results identify specific vulnerabilities associated with different contract types, providing valuable insights for developers and auditors. This relationship between contract categories and vulnerabilities is a new contribution to the field, as it has not been thoroughly explored in previous research. Our findings offer a detailed taxonomy of smart contracts and practical recommendations for enhancing security. By understanding how contract categories correlate with vulnerabilities, developers can implement more effective security measures, and auditors can better prioritize their reviews. This study advances both academic knowledge of smart contracts and practical strategies for securing decentralized applications on the Ethereum platform.

Practical Verification of Smart Contracts using Memory Splitting

SMT-based verification of low-level code requires modeling and reasoning about memory operations. Prior work has shown that optimizing memory representations is beneficial for scaling verification—pointer analysis, for example can be used to split memory into disjoint regions leading to faster SMT solving. However, these techniques are mostly designed for C and C++ programs with explicit operations for memory allocation which are not present in all languages. For instance, on the Ethereum virtual machine, memory is simply a monolithic array of bytes which can be freely accessed by Ethereum bytecode, and there is no allocation primitive. In this paper, we present a memory splitting transformation guided by a conservative memory analysis for Ethereum bytecode generated by the Solidity compiler. The analysis consists of two phases: recovering memory allocation and memory regions, followed by a pointer analysis. The goal of the analysis is to enable memory splitting which in turn speeds up verification. We implemented both the analysis and the memory splitting transformation as part of a verification tool, CertoraProver, and show that the transformation speeds up SMT solving by up to 120x and additionally mitigates 16 timeouts when used on 229 real-world smart contract verification tasks.

AgroChain: Decentralised Supply Chain Management System

The “AgroChain: Decentralized Supply Chain Management System” research project explores the concept of decentralized supply chains for agriculture and their potential to revolutionize the food distribution system. Decentralized supply chains for agriculture are transforming the way food is produced, distributed, and consumed. By leveraging blockchain technology, smart contracts, peer-to-peer networks, and farmer cooperatives, this innovative system promotes transparency, reduces waste, empowers smallholder farmers, and ensures a resilient and sustainable global food supply. The proposed solutions to challenges include implementing blockchain technology for transparency, enabling direct-to-consumer models for fairer prices, utilizing data analytics and IoT devices for efficiency, promoting sustainability practices, supporting farmer cooperatives and capacity building, and exploring privacy-enhancing technologies

Automating Comment Generation for Smart Contract from Bytecode

Recently, smart contracts have played a vital role in automatic financial and business transactions. To help end users without programming background to better understand the logic of smart contracts, previous studies have proposed models for automatically translating smart contract source code into their corresponding code summaries. However, in practice, only 13% of smart contracts deployed on the Ethereum blockchain are associated with source code. The practical usage of these existing tools is significantly restricted. Considering that bytecode is always necessary when deploying smart contracts, in this paper, we first introduce the task of automatically generating smart contract code summaries from bytecode. We propose a novel approach, named S mart BT ( Smart contract B ytecode T ranslator) for automatically translating smart contract bytecode into fine-grained natural language description directly. Two key challenges are posed for this task: structural code logic hidden in bytecode and the huge semantic gap between bytecode and natural language descriptions. To address the first challenge, we transform bytecode into CFG (Control-Flow Graph) to learn code structural and logic details. Regarding the second challenge, we introduce an information retrieval component to fetch similar comments for filling the semantic gap. Then the structural input and semantic input are used to build an attentional sequence-to-sequence neural network model. The copy mechanism is employed to copy rare words directly from similar comments and the coverage mechanism is employed to eliminate repetitive outputs. The automatic evaluation results show that SmartBT outperforms a set of baselines by a large margin, and the human evaluation results show the effectiveness and potential of SmartBT in producing meaningful and accurate comments for smart contract code from bytecode directly.

Block Medcare: Advancing Healthcare Through Blockchain Integration

In an era driven by information exchange, transparency and security hold crucial importance, particularly within the healthcare industry, where data integrity and confidentiality are paramount. This paper investigates the integration of blockchain technology in healthcare, focusing on its potential to revolutionize Electronic Health Records (EHR) management and data sharing. By leveraging Ethereum-based blockchain implementations and smart contracts, we propose a novel system that empowers patients to securely store and manage their medical data. Our research addresses critical challenges in implementing blockchain in healthcare, including scalability, user privacy, and regulatory compliance. We propose a solution that combines digital signatures, Role-Based Access Control, and a multi-layered architecture to enhance security and ensure controlled access. The system's key functions, including user registration, data append, and data retrieval, are facilitated through smart contracts, providing a secure and efficient mechanism for managing health information. To validate our approach, we developed a decentralized application (dApp) that demonstrates the practical implementation of our blockchain-based healthcare solution. The dApp incorporates user-friendly interfaces for patients, doctors, and administrators, showcasing the system's potential to streamline healthcare processes while maintaining data security and integrity. Additionally, we conducted a survey to gain insights into the perceived benefits and challenges of blockchain adoption in healthcare. The results indicate strong interest among healthcare professionals and IT experts, while also highlighting concerns about integration costs and technological complexity. Our findings underscore the transformative potential of blockchain technology in healthcare, pointing towards a new era of patient-centric and secure healthcare services. By addressing current limitations and exploring future enhancements, such as integration with IoT devices and AI-driven analytics, this research contributes to the ongoing evolution of secure, efficient, and interoperable healthcare systems.

Blockchain Based Decentralized Storage Drive

The "Decentralized Storage Drive" project introduces a secure, blockchain-based platform for decentralized data storage and sharing. By integrating the Interplanetary File System (IPFS) for decentralized storage, the platform ensures that data remains immutable and resistant to censorship. Solidity smart contracts deployed on the Ethereum blockchain provide robust mechanisms for access control, allowing users to manage data ownership and permissions without relying on centralized authorities. A React-based front- end interface simplifies user interaction, enabling seamless data upload and access management. This project addresses critical issues related to data privacy, security, and ownership, offering a user-friendly solution that empowers individuals with greater control over their digital assets. Throughout the development of this project, a focus on security, user control, and decentralization has been paramount. The rigorous testing of smart contracts and the integration of secure authentication methods ensure that the platform is both reliable and resilient to potential threats. The "Decentralized Storage Drive" represents a significant advancement in the field of decentralized applications, demonstrating the practical application of blockchain technology in everyday data management. Key Words: Decentralized Storage, Blockchain Technology, IPFS(InterPlanetary File System), Smart Contracts, Data Integrity, Access Control

Secure and Transparent Craftwork Authentication and Transaction System: Integrating Digital Fingerprinting and Blockchain Technologies

This study proposes a method that enables craftsmen to define and apply the unique characteristics of their craftworks to distinguish between originals and imitations and to protect and trade their intellectual property rights. In the first step, a digital fingerprint that enables the authentication of the original craftworks was generated by applying hash functions that can digitize various attributes of the craftworks and create a unique ID. In the second step, a blockchain transaction system for the original authentication of the craftwork was developed by applying consortium blockchain technology. This system allows multiple craft-related organizations to participate together, and when a transaction occurs, a smart contract is created and stored on the blockchain, thereby enabling the tracking and management of transaction histories. Furthermore, a DApp was developed that enables buyers to verify the craftwork authentication and access detailed information by scanning the digital fingerprint (QR code) of the craftwork, which is integrated with the blockchain system. In the third step, the research results were evaluated through a satisfaction survey conducted with 121 participants and a usability evaluation with 10 craftsmen, both of which yielded positive feedback. This study successfully realizes a secure and transparent craftwork transaction system that guarantees both security and efficiency through the integration of digital fingerprinting and blockchain technologies.

Blockchain‐IoT: A revolutionary model for secure data storage and fine‐grained access control in internet of things

AbstractWith the rapid expansion of the Internet of Things (IoT), cloud storage has emerged as one of the cornerstones of data management, facilitating ubiquitous access and seamless sharing of information. However, with the involvement of a third party, traditional cloud‐based storage systems are plagued by security and availability concerns, stemming from centralized control and management architectures. A novel blockchain‐IoT model that leverages blockchain technology and decentralized storage mechanisms to address these challenges is presented. The model combines the Ethereum blockchain, interplanetary file system, and attribute‐based encryption to ensure secure and resilient storage and sharing of IoT data. Through an in‐depth exploration of the system architecture and underlying mechanisms, it is demonstrated how the framework decouples storage functionality from resource‐constrained IoT devices, mitigating security risks associated with on‐device storage. In addition, data owners and users can easily exchange data with one another through the use of Ethereum smart contracts, fostering a collaborative environment and providing incentives for data sharing. Moreover, an incentive mechanism powered by the FileCoin cryptocurrency is introduced, which motivates and ensures data sharing transparency and integrity between stakeholders. Furthermore, in the proposed blockchain‐IoT model, the proof‐of‐authority system consensus algorithm has been replaced by a delegated proof‐of‐capacity system, which reduces transaction costs and energy consumption. Using the Rinkby Ethereum official testing network, the proposed model has been demonstrated to be feasible and economical, emphasizing its potential to redefine IoT data management.

Automated Repair of Smart Contract Vulnerabilities: A Systematic Literature Review

The substantial value held by smart contracts (SCs) makes them an enticing target for malicious attacks. The process of fixing vulnerabilities in SCs is intricate, primarily due to the immutability of blockchain technology. This research paper introduces a systematic literature review (SLR) that evaluates rectification systems designed to patch vulnerabilities in SCs. Following the guidelines set forth by the PRISMA statement, this SLR meticulously reviews a total of 31 papers. In this context, we classify recently published SC automated repair frameworks based on their methodologies for automatic program repair (APR), rewriting strategies, and tools for vulnerability detection. We argue that automated patching enhances the reliability and adoption of SCs, thereby allowing developers to promptly address identified vulnerabilities. Furthermore, existing automated repair tools are capable of addressing only a restricted range of vulnerabilities, and in some cases, patches may not be effective in preventing the targeted vulnerabilities. Another key point that should be taken into account is the simplicity of the patch and the gas consumption of the modified program. Alternatively, large language models (LLMs) have opened new avenues for automatic patch generation, and their performance can be improved by innovative methodologies.

BCT Crowdfunding: Is It the Bridge of Trust Required for Funding EU’s SMEs?

Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are the cornerstone of the European eDaconomy, representing 99.8% of all businesses and providing 66% of employment. Despite their critical role, SMEs face significant challenges in accessing traditional financing, particularly in the aftermath of the 2008 financial crisis, which led to a reduction in riskier lending by banks. Crowdfunding has emerged as a viable alternative, offering a decentralized and democratized avenue for raising capital, especially through platforms powered by blockchain technology.This paper explores the potential of blockchain technology (BCT) to revolutionize crowdfunding within the European Union (EU), addressing the critical financial needs of SMEs. BCT enhances transparency, trust, and efficiency in crowdfunding by enabling features such as tokenization, smart contracts, and decentralization. These innovations offer solutions to longstanding issues in traditional finance, such as fraud, information asymmetry, and the reliance on intermediaries.However, the paper also highlights the limitations and challenges of crowdfunding in Europe, particularly the disparities in crowdfunding trends between the UK, Nordic countries, and the rest of the EU. Financial data from 2018 and projections for 2023 reveal that while the number of crowdfunding campaigns in the EU is growing, the per-campaign value remains significantly lower compared to the UK, reflecting a continued focus on smaller-scale investments.The integration of BCT into crowdfunding practices presents both opportunities and obstacles. Although it offers a promising path to more efficient and secure funding mechanisms, the successful implementation of BCT will require coordinated efforts from governments, regulatory bodies, financial institutions, and technology developers to navigate the complex legal and technological landscape.In conclusion, while blockchain-based crowdfunding has the potential to reshape SME financing in Europe, realizing its full benefits will demand proactive engagement with emerging challenges and continuous adaptation to evolving regulatory frameworks.

Trust in context: The impact of regulation on blockchain and DeFi

AbstractTrust is a key resource in financial transactions. Traditional financial institutions, and novel blockchain‐based decentralized financial (DeFi) services rely on fundamentally different sources of trust and confidence. The former relies on heavy regulation, trusted intermediaries, clear rules (and restrictions) on market competition, and long‐standing informal expectations on what banks and other financial intermediaries are supposed to do or not to do. The latter rely on blockchain technology to provide confidence in the outcome of rules encoded in protocols and smart contracts. Their main promise is to create confidence in the way the blockchain architecture enforces rules, rather than to trust banks, regulators, and markets. In this article, we compare the trust architectures surrounding these two financial systems. We provide a deeper analysis of how proposed regulation in the blockchain space affects the code‐ and confidence‐based architectures which so far have underwrote DeFi. We argue that despite the solid safeguards and guarantees which code can offer, the confidence in DeFi is still very much dependent on more traditional trust‐enhancing mechanisms, such as code governance, and antifraud regulation to address some of the issues which currently plague this domain, and which have no immediate, purely software‐based solutions. What is more, given the risks of bugs or scams in the DeFi space, regulation and trusted intermediaries may need to play a more active role, in order for DeFi to gain the trust of the next generation of users.

Blockchain-Driven Food Supply Chains: A Systematic Review for Unexplored Opportunities

This systematic review critically examines the diverse applications of Blockchain technology in the food supply chain and identifies areas where its potential remains underutilized. By analysing 60 Blockchain-based frameworks, the study highlights the most frequently employed drivers such as transparency, traceability, and security within food supply chains. Additionally, underexplored applications such as food donation and redistribution, supply chain financing, animal welfare, food waste management, and data analysis are identified, revealing opportunities for further innovation. The research employed NVivo 14 to analyze the extent of Blockchain’s implementation in various food supply chain drivers, and the findings informed the development of a more diverse framework for Blockchain integration. Key insights demonstrate Blockchain’s transformative potential, particularly in enhancing data integrity, trust, and operational efficiency through its immutable ledger and smart contracts, which streamline transactions, cut administrative costs, and reduce fraud. In terms of sustainability and safety, Blockchain improves traceability, accelerates safety responses, promotes environmental sustainability by tracking resource usage, and enhances humanitarian efforts with transparent, efficient resource distribution. Additionally, Blockchain facilitates food waste reduction by optimizing inventory and distribution, while ensuring surplus food reaches those in need. The study concludes by offering a roadmap for future research, pointing toward untapped dimensions of Blockchain’s application in food traceability, sustainable supply chain management, and environmental & social impact. While the review provides a comprehensive understanding of Blockchain’s current usage in food supply chains, the scope is limited by the systematic review process and specific inclusion criteria. This study serves as a foundation for exploring Blockchain’s broader potential in shaping the future of food supply chains.

Decentralizing ride-sharing: a blockchain-based application with smart contract automation and performance analysis

Decentralizing ride-sharing: a blockchain-based application with smart contract automation and performance analysis

Technical sandbox for a Global Patient co-Owned Cloud (GPOC)

BackgroundThe use of Cloud-based storage personal health records has increased globally. The GPOC series introduces the concept of a Global Patient co-Owned Cloud (GPOC) of personal health records. Technical sandboxes allow the capability to simulate different scientific concepts before making them production ready. None exist for the medical fields and cloud-based research.MethodsWe constructed and tested the sandbox using open-source infrastructures (Ubuntu, Alpine Linux, and Colaboratory) and demonstrated it on a cloud platform. Data preprocessing utilised standard and in-house libraries. The Mina protocol, implementing zero-knowledge proofs, ensured secure blockchain operations, while the Ethereum smart contract protocol within Hyperledger Besu supported enterprise-grade sandbox development.ResultsHere, we present the GPOC series’ technical sandbox. This is to facilitate future online research and testing of the concept and its security, encryption, movability, research potential, risks and structure. It has several protocols for homomorphic encryption, decentralisation, transfers, and file management.The sandbox is openly available online and tests authorisation, transmission, access control, and integrity live. It invites all committed parties to test and improve the platform. Individual patients, clinics, organisations and regulators are invited to test and develop the concept.The sandbox displays co-ownership of personal health records. Here it is trisected between patients, clinics and clinicians. Patients can actively participate in research and control their health data. The challenges include ensuring that a unified underlying protocol is maintained for cross-border delivery of care based on data management regulations.ConclusionsThe GPOC concept, as demonstrated by the GPOC Sandbox, represents an advancement in healthcare technology. By promoting patient co-ownership and utilising advanced technologies like blockchain and homomorphic encryption, the GPOC initiative enhances individual control over health data and facilitates collaborative medical research globally. The justification for this research lies in its potential to improve evidence-based medicine and AI dissemination. The significance of the GPOC initiative extends to various aspects of healthcare, patient co-ownership of health data, promoting access to resources and healthcare democratisation. The implications include better global health outcomes through continued development and collaboration, ensuring the successful adoption of the GPOC Sandbox and advancing innovation in digital health.

Smart Blockchain Networks: Revolutionizing Donation Tracking in the Web 3.0

A donation-tracking system leveraging smart contracts and blockchain technology holds transformative potential for reshaping the landscape of charitable giving, especially within the context of Web 3.0. This paper explores how smart contracts and blockchain can be used to create a transparent and secure ledger for tracking charitable donations. We highlight the limitations of traditional donation systems and how a blockchain-based system can help overcome these challenges. The functionality of smart contracts in donation tracking, offering advantages such as automation, reduced transaction fees, and enhanced accountability, is elucidated. The decentralized and tamper-proof nature of blockchain technology is emphasized for increased transparency and fraud prevention. While elucidating the benefits, we also address challenges in implementing such a system, including the need for technical expertise and security considerations. By fostering trust and accountability, a donation-tracking system in Web 3.0, empowered by smart blockchain networks, aims to catalyze a profound positive impact in the realm of philanthropy.

Performance analysis of a blockchain-based messaging system implementation for air cargo supply chains

ABSTRACT The air cargo supply chain’s goal is to achieve fast shipment movement through multistage coordination among multiple air cargo stakeholders. The lack of transparency in the end-to-end supply chain and complex digital connectivity is what limits the traditional peer-to-peer communication flow in the fragmented air cargo industry. Blockchain technology can enhance communication transparency by streamlining multistage message flows via smart contracts and by acting as an intermediary to simplify digital connections among air cargo stakeholders. Despite the benefits of applying blockchain for air cargo messaging, as blockchain is an emerging technology, technical concerns in the areas of performance, privacy, and interoperability can hinder the practical adoption of the blockchain system. To address practical implementation concerns, a blockchain-based messaging system using the Algorand public blockchain is developed in our work to demonstrate the practicality of blockchain. Transaction data privacy can be protected by the encryption key exchange algorithm, which supports forward secrecy. Our experimental results provide practical performance insights into the Algorand blockchain for streamlined messaging from various aspects related to transaction submission, confirmation, and retrieval. Our results show that by leveraging the Algorand blockchain, our proposed system can offer scalable, efficient, reliable, and cost-effective communication channels for air cargo messaging.

Smart contract languages: A comparative analysis

Smart contracts have played a pivotal role in the evolution of blockchains and Decentralized Applications (DApps). As DApps continue to gain widespread adoption, multiple smart contract languages have been and are being made available to developers, each with its distinctive features, strengths, and weaknesses. In this paper, we examine the smart contract languages used in major blockchain platforms, with the goal of providing a comprehensive assessment of their main properties. Our analysis targets the programming languages rather than the underlying architecture: as a result, while we do consider the interplay between language design and blockchain model, our main focus remains on language-specific features such as usability, programming style, safety and security. To conduct our assessment, we propose an original benchmark which encompasses a wide, yet manageable, spectrum of key use cases that cut across all the smart contract languages under examination.