Smallholder Pig Farms Research Articles

Factors affecting the level of commercialization of smallholder pig farmers in the west rand district municipality of gauteng, South Africa

This study aimed to analyse the factors influencing the smallholder pig farmers’ level of commercialization in the agricultural markets in the West Rand District of Gauteng Province, South Africa. A total population sampling was used, where data was collected from 84 smallholder pig farmers by a semi-structured questionnaire. Version 28.0 of the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS), binary logistic regression, and multinomial logit models were used to analyse the collected data. The results showed that 78.6% of the smallholder pig farmers lacked commercialization. The results further indicated that the pig unit size, level of the farmers’ commercialization, number of piglets per sow, and farmers’ affiliation had a significant influence on the smallholder pig farmers' access to high-value markets. Variables such as credit availability, market accessibility, and the quantity of the piglets per sow significantly impacted the level of commercialization among the interviewed smallholder pig farmers. Smallholder farmers’ access to commercial and high-value pig markets is not easily accessible; therefore, the municipalities and local agricultural departments should make provision for an agricultural extension program that will prioritize and concentrate on the smallholder farmers’ access to the high-value market.

Novel estimation of African swine fever transmission parameters within smallholder villages in Lao P.D.R

African Swine Fever (ASF) disease transmission parameters are crucial for making response and control decisions when faced with an outbreak, yet they are poorly quantified for smallholder and village contexts within Southeast Asia. Whilst disease-specific factors − such as latent and infectious periods − should remain reasonably consistent, host, environmental and management factors are likely to affect the rate of disease spread. These differences are investigated using Approximate Bayesian Computation with Sequential Monte-Carlo methods to provide disease parameter estimates in four naïve pig populations in villages of Lao People’s Democratic Republic. The villages represent smallholder pig farmers of the Northern province of Oudomxay and the Southern province of Savannakhet, and the model utilised field mortality data to validate the transmission parameter estimates over the course of multiple model generations. The basic reproductive number between-pigs was estimated to range from 3.08 to 7.80, whilst the latent and infectious periods were consistent with those published in the literature for similar genotypes in the region (4.72 to 6.19 days and 2.63 to 5.50 days, respectively). These findings demonstrate that smallholder village pigs interact similarly to commercial pigs, however the spread of disease may occur slightly slower than in commercial study groups. Furthermore, the findings demonstrated that despite diversity across the study groups, the disease behaved in a consistent manner. This data can be used in disease control programs or for future modelling of ASF in smallholder contexts.

Semiquantitative Risk Evaluation Reveals Drivers of African Swine Fever Virus Transmission in Smallholder Pig Farms and Gaps in Biosecurity, Tanzania.

African swine fever (ASF) has remained persistent in Tanzania since the early 2000s. Between 2020 and 2021, pig farms in twelve districts in Tanzania were infected with ASF, and ≥4,804 pigs reportedly died directly due to the disease with disruption to livelihoods. We conducted semiquantitative field investigations and rapid risk assessment (RRA) to understand the risk factors and drivers of ASF virus (ASFV) amplification and transmission in smallholder pig farms, and determine the gaps in biosecurity through hazard profiling, focus group discussions and expert opinion. Outbreaks were connected by road and aligned along the pig product value chain and reported in the northern, central, and southern parts of Tanzania. The patterns of outbreaks and impacts differed among districts, but cases of ASF appeared to be self-limiting following significant mortality of pigs in farms. Movement of infected pigs, movement of contaminated pig products, and fomites associated with service providers, vehicles, and equipment, as well as the inadvertent risks associated with movements of animal health practitioners, visitors, and scavengers were the riskiest pathways to introduce ASFV into smallholder pig farms. Identified drivers and facilitators of risk of ASFV infection in smallholder pig farms were traders in whole pigs, middlemen, pig farmers, transporters, unauthorized animal health service providers, and traders in pork. All identified pig groups were susceptible to ASFV, particularly shared adult boars, pregnant and lactating sows, and other adult females. The risk of ASF for smallholder pig farms in Tanzania remains very high based on a systematic risk classification. The majority of the farms had poor biosecurity and no single farm implemented all identified biosecurity measures. Risky practices and breaches of biosecurity in the pig value chain in Tanzania are profit driven and are extremely difficult to change. Behavioural change communication must target identified drivers of infections, attitudes, and practices.

Description of smallholder pig farming in the Metropolitan Region of Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil

Várias pequenas granjas de suínos existem no Brasil paralelamente à suinocultura industrial, que é realizada em fazendas de grande escala. Portanto, o objetivo deste estudo foi descrever o sistema de produção familiar de suínos na Região Metropolitana de Curitiba. Para isso foi aplicado um questionário in loco entrevistando agricultores, totalizando 362 propriedades avaliadas. A mão de obra era exclusivamente familiar em 93,4% das propriedades, 50% das propriedades tinham entre 1,1 e 10 hectares, 98,3% criavam outras espécies animais, principalmente aves, e 80,9% das propriedades cultivavam culturas, principalmente milho. As operações do ciclo completo foram desenvolvidas em 57,2% das granjas, os suínos foram mantidos em sistema confinado em 62,5% e os suínos foram mantidos ao ar livre em 20,7%. Das explorações de produção completa, 40,1% tinham entre 11 e 20 porcos, enquanto nas explorações de engorda, 88,4% tinham até 5 porcos. A maioria das propriedades visitadas (79,6%) possuía suínos de raças indefinidas. Em termos de práticas alimentares, o milho e os vegetais disponíveis localmente foram os mais utilizados; além disso, 38,1% dos agricultores utilizavam concentrado comercial, geralmente com outros alimentos. A reprodução ocorreu exclusivamente por monta natural e a idade de desmame mais citada (46,9%) foi de dois meses. Todos os entrevistados criavam suínos principalmente para consumo próprio, sendo que 78,7% também comercializavam os animais. Na região estudada, os agricultores obtiveram a renda familiar combinando a agricultura com outras atividades e afirmaram que a produção de suínos pouco contribuiu para essa renda, sendo desenvolvida principalmente devido à tradição familiar.

The Study of Sustainable Biodesinfectants for Pig Farms in Samosir Island, Indonesia

Disease control in smallholder pig farms has not been appropriately taken care of on Samosir Island. Pig livestockers suffer a lot of losses due to bacterial infection. Reducing the bacterial population in the pigsty is beneficial for minimizing the access of animals infected with bacteria. One way is by applying a disinfectant. This study investigated the ability of alternative biodesinfectants with four concentrations to eliminate pig-associated Escherichia coli and Salmonella by in-vitro tests. Sustainable biodesinfectans are fermented fruit extract (FFE), and fermented fruits extract plus Agave sisalana (FFE +AS). The antimicrobial activity testing method was the diffusion method with a paper disc. Fermentation of fruit waste to produce FFE is more beneficial than disposing of the waste at a landfill. In this study, the fruit waste used comes from pineapple (Ananas comosus), papaya (Carica papaya), and banana (Musa paradisiaca). FEE + AS is FEE, which refermented to the addition of Agave sisalana. FFE and FFE + AS contain enzymes, organic acids, and microbial. The results showed that FEE +AS 100%, 1: 10, and 1:20 prove to inhibit Escherichia coli and Salmonella. The highest antimicrobial activity was obtained from FEE + AS with an 11.7 mm inhibition zone diameter. Further studies on disinfecting pig sheds are justified to assess their effectiveness.

Retrospective investigation of the 2019 African swine fever epidemic within smallholder pig farms in Oudomxay province, Lao PDR.

The 2019 African swine fever (ASF) outbreak in the Lao People's Democratic Republic (Lao PDR or Laos) represented a major epidemiologic event where a transitioning lower-middle income nation (LMIC) experienced a viral epidemic in a naïve pig population. The diversity of pig management styles creates challenges for local and regional policymakers when formulating recommendations to control an ASF outbreak. The aim of this study were to investigate the management of pigs in villages of Oudomxay province that were affected by ASF in 2019, as a case study in a smallholder pig-rasing system in northern Laos. The frequencies of well known risk factors were measured in the affected villages and the timelines and household level stock losses due to the outbreak were investigated. These findings were compared to data available from a similar outbreak in the southern province of Savannakhet. Disease control implications of these findings are discussed. Mean losses were 3.0-23.3 pigs per household, with a mean lost herd value of USD 349, 95% CI (294-415). These pig losses reflect those estimated in Savannakhet (6.7 pigs per household). However, the financial loss estimated per household was higher, USD 349 versus USD 215, possibly due to higher pig values and a higher input/output management approach in Oudomxay. The investigation revealed the presence of numerous ASF risk factors, such as swill-feeding and free-ranging. In addition, poor biosecurity practices - such as inappropriate garbage disposal and slaughtering - that could contaminate the environment were present. ASF cases occurred across all villages between June and December 2019, with outbreak periods ranging from 22-103 days. These values are consistent with the outbreak in Savannakhet; however, notable differences in management styles were observed. These findings demonstrate the need for more disease control resources from the village to the Governmental level. Villages need support in enacting context appropriate biosecurity measures, whilst the ongoing surveillance and investigation of ASF require investment in logistical and veterinary resources at the Governmental level.

Prevalence and Genomic Characterization of Rotavirus A from Domestic Pigs in Zambia: Evidence for Possible Porcine-Human Interspecies Transmission.

Rotavirus is a major cause of diarrhea globally in animals and young children under 5 years old. Here, molecular detection and genetic characterization of porcine rotavirus in smallholder and commercial pig farms in the Lusaka Province of Zambia were conducted. Screening of 148 stool samples by RT-PCR targeting the VP6 gene revealed a prevalence of 22.9% (34/148). Further testing of VP6-positive samples with VP7-specific primers produced 12 positives, which were then Sanger-sequenced. BLASTn of the VP7 positives showed sequence similarity to porcine and human rotavirus strains with identities ranging from 87.5% to 97.1%. By next-generation sequencing, the full-length genetic constellation of the representative strains RVA/pig-wt/ZMB/LSK0137 and RVA/pig-wt/ZMB/LSK0147 were determined. Genotyping of these strains revealed a known Wa-like genetic backbone, and their genetic constellations were G4-P[6]-I5-R1-C1-M1-A8-N1-T1-E1-H1 and G9-P[13]-I5-R1-C1-M1-A8-N1-T1-E1-H1, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that these two viruses might have their ancestral origin from pigs, though some of their gene segments were related to human strains. The study shows evidence of reassortment and possible interspecies transmission between pigs and humans in Zambia. Therefore, the "One Health" surveillance approach for rotavirus A in animals and humans is recommended to inform the design of effective control measures.

Knowledge, Attitude, and Practices of Swine Farmers related to Livestock Biosecurity: A Case Study of African Swine Fever in Vietnam

Purpose: African Swine Fever (ASF), one of the world’s most contagious and deadly livestock infectious diseases, was introduced to Vietnam in 2019 and has since become one of the biggest threats to the country’s porcine industry. To this day, very little is known about the major drivers of ASF outbreaks – in particular, the generally low levels of biosecurity found on smallholder farms in Vietnam. The main objective of this paper is to assess the knowledge disparities, diverging attitudes, and different practices among smallholder pig farming households that influence the adoption, implementation, and continuation of ASF biosecurity measures in Vietnam. Research Method: Structured questionnaire surveys were conducted to 183 smallholder pig farming households in December 2020 in four districts of Dong Nai, the largest pig production province in Vietnam. The determinants of farmers’ knowledge and attitude toward ASF were estimated using an ordinal probit regression; a panel-data probit regression approximated the probability of farmers adopting biosecurity measures. Findings: It was found that, prior to the first outbreaks of ASF in Vietnam in 2019, surveyed pig farmers generally had an inadequate level of knowledge about ASF to be able to successfully prevent and control the disease’s spread. Rather, farmers only managed to significantly improve their understanding of ASF after outbreaks had begun. Model estimates indicate that a better understanding of ASF ultimately helped improve farmers’ attitudes toward ASF biosecurity measures. Additionally, farmers with previous experience in dealing with other livestock infectious disease outbreaks were, in most cases, found to be more willing to implement ASF biosecurity measures. Together, deeper understanding of ASF and more positive attitudes towards ASF prevention and control measures contributed to an overall increase in the likelihood of farmers adopting and implementing appropriate ASF biosecurity practices. Originality/ Value: This paper highlights the need for improved community education campaigns in efforts to prevent and contain ASF outbreaks, as well as the need for increased financial assistance and support for swine farmers to enable them to adopt effective biosecurity practices.

Knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding porcine cysticercosis control among smallholder pig farmers in Kongwa and Songwe districts, Tanzania: A cross-sectional study.

Taenia solium taeniasis/cysticercosis (TSTC) is a parasitic zoonotic disease that is endemic in several developing countries, causing serious public health and economic impacts. A cross-sectional study was conducted to assess knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) related to porcine cysticercosis (PCC) transmission, prevention and control among smallholder pig farmers in Kongwa and Songwe Districts in Tanzania. A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to 692 smallholder pig farmers from randomly selected households. STATA software version 17 was used to analyse quantitative data, summarize farmers' KAP about PCC and calculate performance scores. Nearly half (42%) of the respondents had little knowledge regarding PCC, only 17% of the respondents had good practices towards prevention/control of PCC and 72% had a positive attitude towards PCC- prevention/control measures. The majority (73%) of smallholder pig farmers admitted deworming their pigs regularly, whereas 76% reported deworming themselves and their family members regularly. Albendazole and ivermectin are the most commonly used medications for deworming people and pigs, respectively. According to the findings, the majority of smallholder pig farmers in Kongwa and Songwe Districts showed a good attitude towards PCC prevention/control measures but had limited knowledge of the PCC life cycle and control. In addition, only one in five farmers was engaged in good practices. The findings revealed further that farmers are engaged in risky behaviours that aid the spread and perpetuation of the T. solium parasite in the study area. It is recommended that farmers should be given proper health education on the T. solium transmission cycle and preventive/control practices to limit PCC transmission.

Improved latrine coverage may reduce porcine cysticercosis: a comparative cross-sectional study, Busia County, Kenya 2021.

Smallholder pig farming is an important economic activity for many poor, rural communities in developing countries. Porcine cysticercosis is a growing public health risk in countries where pig rearing is popular. A sanitation-based intervention to reduce the prevalence of open defecation was completed in Busia County, Kenya in 2016. We capitalized on this third party intervention to evaluate its impact on porcine cysticercosis prevalence. We conducted a comparative cross-sectional survey from August through to September 2021. Household selection was done using multistage sampling. Household questionnaire data on pig production, transmission, risk factors and awareness of porcine cysticercosis were collected from 251 households. Lingual palpation was used to test for cysticerci in 370 pigs while serum was tested for circulating antigen using Ag-ELISA. We compared results of our survey to an effective baseline, which was a near equivalent cross sectional survey conducted in 2012 before the third party sanitary intervention was established. The difference in prevalence was measured using Chi-square tests. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to identify risk factors for lingual cysts in pigs. The prevalence of palpable lingual cysts was estimated to be 3.8% (95% CI 2.3-6.3%) (14/370). This was 6% (95% CI 0.8-13.9%; p-value 0.0178) lower than the prevalence reported in the pre-implementation period of 9.7% (95% CI: 4.5-17.6%). Circulating antigen was detected in 2 samples (0.54%, 95% CI: 0.2-1.9). Latrine coverage was 86% (95% CI: 81-90%), which was 11% (95% CI: 4.8-16.8%; p < 0.001) higher than the pre-implementation period coverage of 75% (95% CI: 71-79%). There was reduced prevalence of lingual cysts in pigs from households that had a latrine (OR = 0.14; 95% CI: 0.05-0.43; p < 0.001) and where pigs were confined or tethered (OR = 0.27; 95% CI: 0.07-1.02; p = 0.053). There was a reduction in the prevalence of porcine cysticercosis in Busia County over the study period from 2012 to 2021. This was not a trial design so we are unable to directly link the decline to a specific cause, but the data are consistent with previous research indicating that improved sanitation reduces porcine cysticercosis. Programs for controlling porcine cysticercosis should include a focus on sanitation in addition to other integrated One Health approaches.

Participatory assessment of management and biosecurity practices of smallholder pig farms in North East India.

The present study was aimed at describing the pig production system, farm management, pig movement, and existing biosecurity level of smallholders' pig production system in North East India. A cross-sectional survey of 1,000 pig producers in four districts (two urban and two rural) in core pig-producing regions of India, where ASF occurrence had been reported, was conducted. The mean pig population was significantly (p < 0.05) higher in urban districts. In urban districts, most of the pig houses were isolated but located on the roadside, while in rural districts, commune pig houses along the roadside were more common. The majority of the respondent purchased (91%) or sold (60%) the pigs during the past 12 months. Swill feeding was common in the entire study area. The majority of the respondent (80%) in rural districts were unaware of ASF. Significant pig trade of live pigs and pork products was observed in the urban district. In the case of on-farm biosecurity measures, only 6.9% of respondents had fencing for the pig farm, 99.3% did not have provision for a footbath, and only 17.2% of the respondents restricted visitors' access to the pig farm. The study revealed that the pig production system is dominated by smallholding units with a frequent introduction or exit of pigs along with poor on-farm biosecurity measures. With the current level of farm management and biosecurity practices, smallholder pig farmers are at an increased risk of ASF and other contagious diseases.

Spatiotemporal Drivers of the African Swine Fever Epidemic in Lao PDR

African swine fever (ASF) is a devastating transboundary disease of swine. Following the first report of ASF in China in August 2018, ASF spread through South-East Asian nations in 2019. Without control and containment measures, ASF can decimate smallholder pig holdings and disrupt value chains. This study aimed to describe the spatiotemporal spread of the 2019 Lao PDR ASF epidemic in domestic pigs, identify environmental (protected areas and forests), production (pig ownership), transportation (roads), and social (poverty and ethnicity) risk factors, and recommend measures that could reduce ASF spread. A retrospective spatiotemporal study was conducted at the village level. Information on the date that ASF was first reported from each case location was collected, and the outcome variable of interest “epidemic day” was created. Risk factor information from different sources was extracted for each case location. The association or correlation between epidemic day and risk factors for the spread of ASF was investigated using Kruskal–Wallis tests and Spearman rank correlation statistics. The epidemic started on June 16 and lasted for 190 days, displaying a right-skewed epidemic curve. The directional distribution was rotated approximately 305°, from Southeast to Northwest Laos. Significant risk factors for ASF associated with epidemic day were location in terms of distance from the closest protected natural area P = 0.020 , pig ownership P = 0.005 , road networks P = 0.003 , and poverty indices P &lt; 0.001 . Cases were reported earlier in this epidemic at locations that were closer to protected natural areas, of higher pig ownership, more connected via the national road network, and which experienced elevated poverty. The spatiotemporal pattern described suggests that ASF was introduced via infected pigs from Vietnam. Based on study findings, recommendations for smallholder pig production in Southeast Asia include improving knowledge of swine value chains to inform disease risk and control, monitoring pig transportation, implementing stricter biosecurity measures on the domestic pig population, and providing biosecurity support and education to smallholder pig farmers in poverty.

Community engagement strengthens pig disease knowledge and passive surveillance in Timor-Leste.

Smallholder pig production in Timor-Leste is culturally and economically important for most households. However, regular and ongoing disease surveillance and pig husbandry training for farmers are limited. This article describes collaborative social and diagnostic research followed by a pilot community engagement program to improve farmer and technician knowledge, skills, and working relationships. There were three phases: (1) A qualitative study in 2020 to explore the experiences and knowledge of 133 pig farmers, 6 village leaders, and 16 district veterinary technicians on pig diseases and reporting, treatment methods, and access to information or assistance. (2) A pilot community engagement program in 3 villages in 2021 with the diagnostic investigation with samples analyzed from 27 dead pigs, and (3) Evaluation of community engagement and training outcomes. Results of the qualitative study revealed limited reporting of sick or dead pigs by farmers to veterinary technicians due to a lack of trust in the veterinary diagnostic system. Most technicians lacked experience with sampling or post-mortems so diagnostic training was undertaken for the pilot disease investigation. Evaluation results showed improved knowledge, motivation, and confidence of government staff and farmers. The credibility of veterinary technicians improved and gave them more confidence to work with communities. Farmers felt supported because all aspects of pig husbandry were addressed, and they were more willing to report dead or sick pigs. The project indicates that improved passive disease surveillance can be achieved by engaging communities in smallholder pig farming in Timor-Leste. Further research and testing of the approach in other districts and countries is recommended.

The role of cooking practices in the transmission of the foodborne parasite Taenia solium: A qualitative study in an endemic area of Southern Tanzania.

The pork tapeworm Taenia solium is a zoonotic food-borne parasite endemic in many developing countries causing human cysticercosis and taeniosis as well as porcine cysticercosis. It mainly affects the health of rural smallholder pig farmers and their communities, resulting in lower health status, reduced pork quality, and economic loss due to condemnation of pigs or low pricing of pork. This qualitative study aimed to identify key food related practices linked to consumption of pork at village level, of importance for transmission of taeniosis. We used an interpretivist-constructivist paradigm in a multiple case study of exploratory qualitative research design. Data was acquired through guided and probing interviews with 64 pork cooks, and 14 direct observations in four villages in a T. solium endemic area of Mbeya Region in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania. The study showed that the informants were members of communities of practice through their pork cooking practices, one community of practice for the restaurant cooks and one for the home cooks, learning, sharing, and distributing their cooking skills. Furthermore, the analysis showed that the pork cooks generally had some awareness of there being something undesirable in raw pork, but they had very diverse understandings of what it was, or of its potential harm. Major potential transmission points were identified in restaurants and in home kitchens. It appears that the pork cooks act according to socio-cultural and economic factors guiding them in their actions, including pressure from customers in restaurants, the family values of tradition in the home kitchens, and the culturally guided risk perception and appraisal. These practices might generate potential transmission points. Future research on interventions aimed at preventing the spread of T. solium taeniosis should recognise the importance of tradition and culture in risky food practices.

Challenges and opportunities of smallholder pig production systems in Rwanda.

To decipher the dynamics, challenges, and opportunities of smallholder pig farming in Rwanda, a household survey was conducted in ten districts of the country. A total of 900 households selected randomly across four provinces and one city, 12 districts, 28 sectors, and villages were interviewed using a pretested printed questionnaire. Most of the respondents were heads of household: 70.9% for western, 63.5% in eastern, 54.1% in northern, and 52.5% in southern province, and their mean age was 46.7years and had widely varying education levels. Crossbred pig genotypes were the most preferred due to their high growth rate and produce large litters compared to local pigs, as well as their high resistance to disease, and can better utilize low-quality feeds compared to pure exotic pigs. Piglets and sows were the biggest populations on most farms. Production of piglets for sale was the main purpose of rearing pigs in 63.7% of the farms. Natural mating was almost (99.1%) exclusive on all farms, implying that artificial insemination is yet to take root in Rwanda. Weeds were reported to be the main feed resource used particularly in wet season, while cereal grain mashes and concentrates were used by very few farmers due to high costs. Dominant challenges related to limited pig and pork markets, high taxation, limited extension services, and disease outbreak were highlighted. The most common diseases affecting pigs were swine erysipelas and internal parasites. Access to veterinary services by the households was limited especially in northern province (20%) leading to wrong diagnosis. Capacity building and provision of access to quality animal health services as well as setting up of markets were proposed as strategies to improve pig production by smallholders in Rwanda and grab a share of the lucrative pork market in the region.

Thermal Inactivation of African Swine Fever Virus in Swill.

The indirect transmission of the African swine fever virus (ASFV) is through contaminated fomite, feed ingredients, pork- and pig-derived products, including swill, as ASFV is highly stable within suitable organic material. Some previous studies have indicated that ASFV outbreaks were associated with swill feeding, particularly in smallholder pig farms. These outbreaks emphasize the significance of the appropriate heat treatment of swill to eliminate ASFV residual titer. The World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) recommended the heat treatment of swill at a temperature of at least 90°C for at least 60 min, with continuous stirring, while the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) recommended heat treatment at 70°C for 30 min. The lack of scientific evidence regarding ASFV inactivation by heat treatment of swill leads to such inconsistent recommendations. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to assess the thermal inactivation of ASFV in three swill formulae and to develop a DT model to predict DT at some other inactivation temperatures. The significant reduction of ASFV in swill occurred at temperatures as low as 60°C. DT or decimal reduction time (DRT) is defined as the time required to reduce the virus titer by 1 log, and this was also used as a comparative index of heat resistance. The mean D60, D70, D75, and D80 of ASFV in three swill formulae were in the ranges 23.21–33.47, 5.83–10.91, 2.15–2.22, and 1.36–1.47 min, respectively. These DT could be widely used for any nutritive composition of swill other than the three swill formulae in this study since there was no statistical difference of all DT of ASFV across three swill formulae. Based on D70 and the predicted D90 from the DT model in this study, including the highest ASFV titer in pork products, the calculated inactivation times at 70 and 90°C were 119 and 4 min, respectively.

Editorial: African Swine Fever in Smallholder and Traditional Pig Farming Systems: Research, Challenges and Solutions

Editorial: African Swine Fever in Smallholder and Traditional Pig Farming Systems: Research, Challenges and Solutions

Pig breeding practices of smallholder farmers in Uganda

Uganda is among the top five pork producing countries in Africa, with pig production and local pork consumption being on an increase. Smallholder pig farming systems in Uganda are not very well documented. A household level survey of 199 households conducted between July and August 2018 in Kamuli and Hoima districts evaluated the smallholder pig breeding practices. Differences between districts were assessed with a chi-squared test. Farmers mainly relied on animals born on farm, from mating of a sow with an on-farm boar as well as boar service, and animals bought in for use as breeding animals. They were knowledgeable of off-farm sources for fattening and breeding animals. Local and crossbreds of local with ‘exotic’ types like Large White, Landrace and Camborough pigs were the predominant types of animals accessed by the farmers. The farmers seemed conversant with heat detection methods in the breeding sow. Sow reproductive problems reported by about 40% of the farmers were small litter size and few litters farrowed over the sow’s lifetime. While important for farm management and breeding purposes, animal identification and record keeping were generally lacking. Main marketing pathways were sales to other farmers and traders at farm gate. Farmers would benefit from participatory strategies that enhance access to quality genetic material. The local pig is an important resource of the smallholder pig herd and additional studies on important traits (heat tolerance, disease resistance and feed utilization) would add valuable information. Keywords: Smallholder, pig, breeding practices, Uganda

Geographic and Socioeconomic Influence on Knowledge and Practices Related to Antimicrobial Resistance among Smallholder Pig Farmers in Uganda.

To mitigate the development of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), antibiotic use (ABU) in the livestock sector needs to be reduced. In low- and middle-income countries, regulations have shown to be less successful in reducing ABU. Here, a bottom-up approach can complement legal frameworks, which requires an understanding of the drivers for ABU. In this study, we investigated the influence of geographic and socioeconomic settings on determinants for ABU among pig farmers in Uganda. The data were collected through a questionnaire in two districts, Lira and Mukono, and comparative statistical analyses were performed. Farmers in Lira had less access to animal health services, applied disease prevention measures less and used antibiotics more. In Mukono, it was more common to consult a veterinarian in response to disease, while in Lira it was more common to consult an animal health worker. There was no difference in how many farmers followed treatment instructions from a veterinarian, but it was more common in Lira to follow instructions from pharmacies. The findings support the need for locally tailored AMR-reducing interventions to complement regulations. To accomplish this tailoring, systematic collection of knowledge of farm structures, farm practices and access to animal health services and veterinary drugs is necessary.

Knowledge and Practices on Antibiotic Use and Antibiotic Resistance Among Smallholder Pig Farmers in Timor-Leste.

Antibiotic resistance is an emerging global health threat which is linked to the overuse and misuse of antibiotics. This study was conducted to understand the knowledge and practices of smallholder pig farmers on antibiotic use and resistance in Timor-Leste. A cross-sectional study using a structured face-to-face interview was conducted in three municipalities. The interview was piloted and implemented in the local Tetun language. This study found that knowledge of antibiotics was very poor as only 12.7% (95% CI: 6.3–23.9) of farmers reported knowing what antibiotics were, and of these only one was able to correctly explain how an antibiotic worked. None of the farmers knew about antibiotic resistance and were able to explain the concept correctly. After the definition of antibiotic was explained to the farmer, only 3.6% (95% CI: 0.8–14.9) reported that their pigs had ever received antibiotics, and the majority of farmers whose pigs had not received antibiotics reported the lack of access to veterinary services. When used, antibiotics were only used for treatment with no reported use for disease prevention or growth promotion. None of the commonly used antibiotics were critically important antimicrobials. Compliance with withdrawal periods was not routinely followed. There is a need to improve access to government veterinary services for farmers in Timor-Leste, while addressing identified knowledge gaps on antibiotics and promoting prudent use practices. The findings from this study serve as baseline information to inform future interventions.