Smallholder Households Research Articles

Understanding Crop Diversification Among Smallholder Farmers: Socioeconomic Insights from Central Malawi

In Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA), smallholder rain-fed systems are vital, yet they are challenged by land degradation, soil fertility decline, and climate risks. To address these challenges, crop diversification has been promoted as a potential pathway to enhance productivity, improve nutritional security, and offer a viable pathway out of poverty and hunger. This study explores crop diversification among 150 smallholder households in the Kasungu, Mchinji, and Lilongwe districts of Malawi, where the project Sustainable Intensification of Maize Legume Systems in East and Southern Africa (SIMLESA) has engaged the smallholder farmers in conservation agriculture (CA)-based sustainable intensification participatory research and development for seven years since 2010. This study used Simpson’s diversity index (SDI) to estimate crop diversification, and a multiple linear regression model (MLRM) to analyze how smallholder farmers’ socio-economic characteristics influence adoption. The findings show a prevalence of small farms of less than 1.5 hectares, with most farmers perceiving crop diversification as beneficial for soil fertility. Key adoption constraints include labor shortages and a lack of legume seeds. SIMLESA participants lead in crop rotations, with a 63% higher adoption rate, and show the highest crop diversity, with a 99% increase in farmers growing three crops and a 74% increase in those growing four crops compared to non-SIMLESA farmers. The SDI values were 0.39 for non-SIMLESA, 0.48 for SIMLESA neighbors, and 0.57 for SIMLESA participants. Access to NGO inputs, larger farm sizes, and participation in research programs were positively associated with diversification, while food insufficiency was negatively associated with its adoption. The study highlights the importance of integrating participatory research methods to promote development initiatives effectively.

Why Do Farmers Disadopt Successful Innovations? Socio-Ecological Niches and Rice Intensification

The adoption of innovations in rice cultivation is presumed to operate in a rational manner, wherein new technologies or practices that successfully increase productivity or resource efficiency are adopted by target farmers based on cost-benefit calculations. In contrast, this paper examines a case of a public initiative to promote the system of rice intensification (SRI), wherein farmers widely disadopted the technique despite reporting increasing yields and reduced water consumption. To explain this paradox, we use the concept of the socio-ecological niche to examine a range of social and institutional factors that shape farmers’ decision-making. These included (1) access to land and labour; (2) water management capacity; (3) the quality of networks for knowledge sharing. The research suggests that small variations in these categories among otherwise similar smallholder households can markedly shape farmers’ risk perceptions and tangible outcomes with SRI. The implication is that agricultural innovations should be judged within their wider social context rather than on narrow evaluations of agronomic efficiency. Importantly, this must involve greater feedback mechanisms from smallholders with a variety of socio-economic profiles to help shape the character of agricultural innovations and extension strategies.

Rendering smallholders social: Taking a social relations approach to understanding the persistence of smallholders in the rural Global South

Drawing on 36 studies in 19 countries and three continents, conducted over forty years, this paper revisits the question of how and why smallholders – and smallholdings – persist in the Global South even under conditions of rapid social and economic transformation. The paper argues that a significant part of the answer to this question can be found by taking a social relational approach: by ‘rendering’ the smallholder social. We identify five social themes that have resonance notwithstanding very different historical inheritances, environmental conditions, political contexts, and economic and developmental situations. Smallholder households feed a significant population of the world, educate the next generation, care for the sick and support those in need, cushion workers when economies contract and jobs evaporate, create communities, underpin national growth, and manage the land. Bringing these roles and qualities into view makes clear that smallholders, far from being relict survivors are critical actors in contemporary rural and urban transformations.

Analysis of Seasonal Time Poverty and Aspirations in the Upper East Region of Ghana

While studies on aspiration formation have progressively gained the interest of development practitioners and policymakers, little is known about the link between seasonal time poverty and aspirations. This study uses primary data on 337 smallholder households in rural northern Ghana to examine the relationship between seasonal time poverty and aspirations about income, assets, child education, and social status from household headship and age perspectives. The results indicate that seasonal time poverty is correlated with higher aspirations of income and assets but a lower social status. The effect is more significant in dry than wet seasons, and more evident in female- and adult-headed households. The findings are robust to alternative estimation methods for addressing endogeneity. Income is identified as the main potential channel through which seasonal time poverty influences aspirations formation and the implications of the findings are discussed. HIGHLIGHTS In Ghana, seasonal time poverty is positively associated with income and asset aspirations. Seasonal time poverty reduces social status aspiration. The effect of seasonal time poverty on aspiration is higher among women and adults. Programs that promote rural household income must be targeted, pursued, and sustained to improve aspirations.

Effects of Changing Weather Patterns on Household Food Availability in Bukiro Sub County Mbarara District

Changing weather patterns and their variables are already negatively impacting food security by damaging crops, reducing yields, and increasing the prevalence of pests and diseases. These pests and diseases contend with crops for sunlight, water, and nutrients, further diminishing agricultural yields and creating issues for crops that were previously unexposed to these threats. Climate-related disruptions in food distribution and transportation, both internationally and domestically, have a substantial impact on not just safety and quality but also access to food. Prolonged dry spells followed by heavy and stormy rains cause interruptions in food production and transportation, reducing farmers' ability to get their grains to market and potentially affecting food prices. This study assessed farmers’ perceptions of effects of changing weather patterns on food security and their coping strategies towards effects of weather changing patterns in smallholder households in Bukiro Sub County, Mbarara District. A sample of 100 smallholder farmers were randomly selected from four parishes of Bukiro sub county and studied using questionnaire and observations. Key informants Interviews were also conducted with nine technical workers and three opinion leaders. Software STAT 26 and Ms excel version 2016 were used to do data analysis. The study found out that changing weather patterns through its variables specifically heavy and stormy rains, late of set of rains, and prolonged dry spells had significant effects on food security. The perceived effects of changing weather patterns established were drying up of water sources (83.8%), decreased land for crop growing (82.4%), reduction in crop yields (77.7%), drying of pastures for animals (67.4%), drying of crops (58.1%), and occurrence of crop and livestock pests and diseases at (56.6%). Also, the perceived weather changing variabilities were late onset of rains (60.1%), prolonged dry spells were responded at 17.6%, and heavy and stormy rains 22.3%. From the study finding farmers clearly perceived that changing weather patterns had negative effects smallholders’ agricultural production systems impacting negatively on food security

Adaptation strategies of smallholder farmers to climate variability and change in Konso, Ethiopia

This study investigates the adaptation strategies employed by smallholder farmers in Konso, Ethiopia, to cope with climate change and variability. A survey of 355 smallholder households revealed that farmers utilize various indigenous techniques, including terracing, agroforestry, intercropping, and traditional irrigation practices, to adapt to climate change. The adoption of these strategies is influenced by factors such as education level, landholding size, income level, access to climate information, credit, and extension services. Despite these efforts, smallholder farmers in Konso continue to face challenges in ensuring food security due to recurrent droughts and unpredictable rainfall patterns. To enhance the sustainability of indigenous farming systems in Konso, this study recommends providing regular weather information, accessible credit services, crop insurance options, and capacity building through extension services, with a focus on inclusive approaches that cater to uneducated farmers.

Assessment of Livelihood Resilience during the COVID-19 Pandemic among Smallholder Households in Pasirtalaga Village, Karawang, Indonesia

Assessment of Livelihood Resilience during the COVID-19 Pandemic among Smallholder Households in Pasirtalaga Village, Karawang, Indonesia

Collective action typologies and their implications for policy targeting: The case of smallholder households from the central region of Kenya

Collective action initiatives (CAIs) are important in ameliorating the negative externalities in agriculture to promote social and economic development in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). However, the empirical basis exploring the context-specificity underpinning the CAIs is barely established. This study characterized the organizational attributes of the CAIs and their implications on policy targeting. The study employed mixed qualitative and quantitative approaches based on survey data drawn from 532 multistage randomly and proportionately sampled smallholder households, ten focus group discussions and two key informant interviews from the central region of Kenya. Multiple correspondence analysis and cluster analysis were used in exploring the organizational attributes of the CAIs. A multivariate probit model was employed to explore how organizational and household socio-economic characteristics influence participation patterns across the collective action typologies. The results revealed two typologies of collective action namely, efficiency and livelihood that were highly distinct in their level of formalization, membership composition, nature and scope of coordination, level of social capital, level of social networking and internal governance mechanisms. The households’ participation patterns across the efficiency and livelihood typology were differentially influenced by household demographics, farm and farming factors, assets, institutional and infrastructural factors. The findings suggest that a ‘one-size-fits-all’ collective action policy is inadequate and suggests a portfolio of context-specific collective action promotional policies. The policies would confer potential complementarities, synergistic and spillover effects in developing the CAIs to address multiple developmental objectives simultaneously.

The gendered nature of household decision making and expenditure choices in the context of smallholder agricultural commercialization in Malawi

BackgroundThe push towards commercialization is driven by the modernization paradigm which argues that traditional subsistence farming is backward and primitive. Despite commercialization having the potential to enhance people’s livelihoods, it can also bring unfathomable social differentiation and widen inequalities in communities. This paper investigates the gendered decision-making and expenditure choices of smallholder households in the context of agricultural commercialization in Central Malawi.MethodsThe analysis is performed by employing sequential mixed methods of quantitative and qualitative data collection, consisting of 28 focus group discussions, 100 life histories, and 519 surveys. Qualitative data were analysed using thematic content analysis while quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive and various regression estimations.ResultsThe results show that many men heads make decisions on cultivated plots and control realized income. The results further show that there are no differences between households headed by women and those headed by men in pursuit of markets. Women’s participation in markets is limited by lack of means of production. Men are getting more involved in crops that were dominated by women such as groundnuts. Women plot managers engaged more with markets, but their control of realized income was less associated with reinvesting in crop commercialization which is also reflected in their expenditure choices. When they control income, women spend relatively less than men on both productive and households assets. In households headed by men, the men dominate selling of produce, decisions on the control over resources, income, and expenditure choices, which results in deepening gender inequalities.ConclusionsDifferences exist in expenditure choices between women and men which points to differing priorities and disparities in access to productive resources. Men dominate decision-making which is preferred by some women to maintain intrahousehold harmony. There is need to create targeted programs for diverse groups of women through participatory approaches to address strategic needs. Women unable to farm due to lack of means of production need social protection programs. Women without decision-making power require empowerment initiatives and gender dialogue sessions to foster joint household activities. Commercial based interventions should go beyond mere targeting of women and men but embed equality interventions to avoid deepening social inequalities.

Traditional home garden agro‐biodiversity dynamics, agro‐ecosystem services, and management practices in smallholder farmers setting, South‐Central Ethiopia

AbstractTraditional home gardens are rich in agro‐biodiversity and are crucial for improving and diversifying the livelihood of smallholder farmers. Though many researches are carried out on home gardens in tropical regions, there are only few studies on the dynamics of traditional home gardens, agro‐ecosystem services, indigenous management practices, and roles in mitigating climate shocks, which is the objective of the present study. For the same purpose, three sites were purposively selected out of which 308 sample smallholder households were chosen using a simple random sampling technique for a household survey. Key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and field observations were also used to collect data for cross‐checking the data collected through the house hold survey. Results demonstrate that there was a wide‐ranging diversity of crops in traditional home garden landscape. Both annual and perennial crops were incorporated into the home gardens to enhance their multiple agro‐ ecosystem services, including enhancing resilience to climate shocks. They ranged from herbaceous to large trees and food to cash crops. The primary agro‐ecosystem services that the home garden agro‐biodiversity delivered were diversifying the sources of food, income, and medicine, as well as improving food security. Home gardens were largely managed by indigenous knowledge, including hand weeding, manure and compost application, nursery preparation, fencing, and flood run‐off control. The agro‐biodiversity in traditional home gardens is more diverse, dynamic, and resilient to climate shocks. Nonetheless, they are neglected hotspots of agro‐biodiversity and sociocultural diversity. In conclusion, the agro‐biodiversity in traditional home gardens promotes food availability, accessibility, and utilization virtually all year round as well as contributes to the preservation of agricultural genetic and cultural diversity.

Determinants of diarrhea prevalence among children under 5 years in semi-arid Ghana

ABSTRACT Despite the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG6) of achieving universal access to clean water and sanitation by 2030, many developing countries still face water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH)-related health issues such as child mortality caused by diarrhea. This study investigated the factors contributing to diarrhea prevalence in rural children, utilizing a cross-sectional survey (n = 517) of smallholder household representatives from a Risk, Attitudes, Norms, Abilities, and Self-Regulation (RANAS) perspective. Using binary logistic regression, the study found that a high prevalence of diarrhea among children was associated with unsafe/open disposal of child feces, living in the poorest households, poor self-rated health, and residing in the Wa East district. Conversely, children from the Brifo ethnicity and those from larger households were less likely to have a high prevalence of diarrhea. These findings underscore the influence of behavioral, socio-cultural, and socioeconomic factors on the prevalence of diarrhea in rural areas. To achieve SDG6, child-friendly sanitation infrastructure, behavior change communication strategies, and incentivizing WASH infrastructure in Ghana and other regions in Sub-Saharan Africa facing similar conditions are recommended.

Impact assessment of sustainable agricultural practices on smallholder households food security: evidence from Burkina Faso

ABSTRACT This study investigates the factors affecting smallholder farmers’ decisions to adopt Sustainable Agricultural Practices (SAPs) and the impacts of single and multiple SAPs adoption on household food security in the Hauts-Bassins region of Burkina Faso. Data were collected through an individual face-to-face survey with 384 farmers. The study used both the multinomial endogenous switching regression and the average treatment effect model complemented with the multivalued inverse probability weighted regression model for the analyses. Results showed that age, education, cooperative membership, farm size, and access to climate and technology information are some socio-economic determinants of farmers’ decisions to adopt SAPs. Several factors can affect the adoption of SAPs and the impact of adopted SAPs on household welfare. Therefore, adopting single or joint SAPs can’t lead to a positive impact on crop yield, income, and further food security, unless implemented in suitable conditions. Also, the adoption of SAPs may enable food diversification and availability but not cover all aspects of food security. Thus, future studies can deeply explore the impact of SAPs on the different dimensions of food security. Our findings advocate for policies that target reducing constraints faced by farmers in successfully implementing SAPs.

Community-based breeding programs can realize sustainable genetic gain and economic benefits in tropical dairy cattle systems.

Implementing an appropriate breeding program is crucial to control fluctuation in performance, enhance adaptation, and further improve the crossbred population of dairy cattle. Five alternative breeding programs (BPs) were modeled considering available breeding units in the study area, the existing crossbreeding practices, and the future prospects of dairy research and development in Ethiopia. The study targeted 143,576 crossbred cows of 54,822 smallholder households in the Arsi, West Shewa, and North Shewa zones of the Oromia Region, as well as the North Shewa zone of the Amhara Region. The alternative BPs include conventional on-station progeny testing (SPT), conventional on-farm progeny testing (FPT), conventional on-station and on-farm progeny testing (SFPT), genomic selection (GS), and genomic progeny testing (GPT). Input parameters for modeling the BPs were taken from the analysis of long-term data obtained from the Holetta Agricultural Research Center and a survey conducted in the study area. ZPLAN+ software was used to predict estimates of genetic gain (GG) and discounted profit for goal traits. The predicted genetic gains (GGs) for milk yield (MY) per year were 34.52 kg, 49.63 kg, 29.35 kg, 76.16 kg, and 77.51kg for SPT, FPT, SFPT, GS, and GPT, respectively. The GGs of the other goal traits range from 0.69 to 1.19 days per year for age at first calving, from 1.20 to 2.35 days per year for calving interval, and from 0.06 to 0.12 days per year for herd life. Compared to conventional BPs, genomic systems (GPT and GS) enhanced the GG of MY by 53%-164%, reduced generation interval by up to 21%, and improved the accuracy of test bull selection from 0.33 to 0.43. The discounted profit of the BPs varied from 249.58 Ethiopian Birr (ETB, 1 USD = 39.55696 ETB) per year in SPT to 689.79 ETB per year in GS. Genomic selection outperforms SPT, SFPT, and FPT by 266, 227%, and 138% of discounted profit, respectively. Community-based crossbreeding accompanied by GS and gradual support with progeny testing (GPT) is recommended as the main way forward to attain better genetic progress in dairy farms in Ethiopia and similar scenarios in other tropical countries.

Nutrition profiles of farm households across different farming systems in Ethiopia: Unpacking the determinants and implications for nutrition-sensitive interventions.

Tackling nutrition insecurity remains a critical challenge in developing countries. In the predominantly rain-fed and smallholder-based farming systems of Ethiopia, production diversity and livelihood strategies of the farm households vary across geographic areas. However, the effects of household socioeconomic characteristics, production diversity, and household incomes on nutrition profiles in distinct settings have been inadequately understood. Therefore, this study was undertaken to examine the association of farming system type, sources of income, and household wealth status with household nutrition profiles in three remote locations such as Mennisa, Welmel Tiqa, and Agam Wuha that represent root crops-based farming, maize-based semi-pastoral farming, and teff-based cereal farming systems, respectively. A combination of qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques was employed. A multistage sampling procedure was used to select a total of 265 smallholder households for the structured survey interviews. Standard statistical tests and Tobit regression analyses were performed after determining the wealth category of each household. Results revealed a diversity of income sources used by each of the farm households with average values of 9 in Mennisa, 10 in Agam Wuha, and 11 in Welmel Tiqa, with the contributions of each income source varying by household wealth category and location. As expected, expenditures on food significantly exceeded those on non-food categories for poor households and vice versa for rich wealth households. The average total food variety score (FVS) for Welmel Tiqa was twice that for Agam Wuha, confirming the need for site-specific nutrition profile assessments. Despite the observed differences in household nutrition profiles among wealth categories and locations, the apparent intakes of vitamin A, vitamin B12, vitamin D, and calcium were consistently below the population-level estimated average requirements across all locations. The number of adequately consumed nutrients by farm households was negatively associated with family size, age of household heads, livestock holdings, wealth categories, and irrigation use, and positively associated with crop production diversity, income diversity, and FVS. The negative association between irrigation use and nutrition security was likely due to the focus on producing crops with a high market value on land under irrigation, coupled with ineffective allocation of generated income for enhancing household nutritional outcomes. Therefore, programs that include irrigated agriculture investments should consider adopting a more integrated nutrition-sensitive interventions, including consideration of locally adapted nutritious crops, such as orange-flesh sweet potato, to address critical deficiency of Vitamin A, nutrition training coupled with development of recipes and cooking demonstrations, and marketing and promotion for nutritious crops.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC DRIVERS OF FOOD SECURITY AMONG SMALLHOLDER RURAL HOUSEHOLD MAIZE FARMERS IN IDO LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF OYO STATE, NIGERIA

The study examined the socio-economic drivers of food security among smallholder rural household maize farmers in Ido Local Government of Oyo State, Nigeria. Primary data was used to collect information from One hundred and twenty (120) respondents. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Households’ food consumption expenditure approach (HFE) and logistic regression model. The results revealed that majority (71.67%) of the respondents were male which implies that farming in the study area was pre- dominantly concentrated by male. Majority (65.83%) of the respondents were married while 70.83% of the respondent were between the age brackets of 41 years and above with an average age of 54 years. The results of the logistic regression indicates that, household size was negatively significant at (p<0.001) showing the larger the household size, the more likelihood of the farm households to be food insecure. The distribution of mean weekly household expenditure classified by budget item shows that food accounted for the bulk of the expenditure (74.69%). Education, clothing, healthcare and drugs, transportation and other items like recharge card, kerosene, etc. accounted for the remaining 25.31%. Farm size owned by the respondents was significant at (p<0.05) and had positive relationship with food security status of households. Both access to credit and access to extension service were positive significant (p<0.05) in influencing food security status of the farming household in the study area. Coping strategies included relying on support from family, selling assets, reducing food consumption, and facing challenges such as insufficient farm size and limited access to credit and extension services. The study concluded that, age, gender, farm size, marital status, access to credit, and household size were identified as the significant determinants of food security of maize farming households in the study area. The study recommended that, improving farmers' access to micro-credit, supported by both governmental and non-governmental organizations, is essential for overcoming resource acquisition challenges and the government should provide assistance to extension agencies disseminating agricultural technologies as well as promoting family planning initiatives to address large family sizes as a barrier to achieving food security.

Vulnerability and resilience in the face of climate changes in Senegal's drylands: measurement at the household level and determinant assessment

The resilience capacity of smallholder households is one of the main drivers of their ability to continue to farm and make investments in the fragile dryland regions. This paper aims to assess the resilience profile of smallholder farmers in the face of climate change and the factors influencing it in three dryland sub-regions of Senegal, namely, Louga, Kaffrine, and Thies. We developed a composite index of climate resilience (CICR) using data on farmers' perceptions of climate variability and their perceived ability to withstand, adapt, and bounce back in the event of climatic shocks. Drought, strong winds, and soil fertility decline because of climate change emerged as the main climate hazards impacting smallholder farming systems. The CICR value ranged from −2 for the most vulnerable households to +2 for the most resilient households. On average, all the households were found to be vulnerable, with an average CICR value of −0.2. The LOUGA region was the most vulnerable, with an average CICR value of −0.36, followed by THIES (-0.2). The KAFFRINE region was relatively less vulnerable, with a CICR value of −0.1. Ordered logit model estimates show that the chances of improving CICR decrease with the increase of the household head's age until 59 years. Access to training on climate-smart agricultural (CSA) practices and climate information appeared to have the potential to increase by 171% the chance of the household improving its resilience status. Analysis also shows that one more woman working off-farm or in-home gardening has the potential to multiply by four times the chances of households being more resilient. This highlights the importance of empowering women to enhance household resilience to climate change. The off-farm revenue increased the chance to improve the resilience status of the farm household by 62% and the receipt of transfer revenue by 50%. This study provides a robust method for quantifying resilience or wellbeing and its drivers and enriches our understanding of the resilience ability of farmers to climate change in a West African context. It can be useful in designing effective adaptation interventions and improving the overall wellbeing of smallholder farmers.

Household milk production, milk purchase and child nutrition:Panel data evidence from rural Uganda

The burden of low-quality diets and childhood undernutrition is widespread in rural areas in SubSaharan Africa, where households rely mostly on agriculture. Various empirical studies have shown the relative importance of the market, and hence food purchases, compared with farm diversification in raising dietary diversity. But are these findings applicable to all food markets? In the case of highly perishable milk, which characterises its production in rural Africa, and the low community ownership of cows, an important research question is whether milk is available in markets and whether milk purchases contribute to the nutrition of children in smallholder households. Using panel data from rural Uganda, we estimate conditional mixed-process models and find positive effects of both household milk production and milk purchases on height-for-age z-scores. We find that milk purchases and milk production are complements, and therefore a strategy combining increases in milk productivity, dairy market development and social protection programmes to increase economic access to milk markets could improve child nutrition.

Aspirations, ambitions and the adoption of diverse fruit trees – a case study of the livelihood effects in Kenya

Current food production systems all over the world face numerous challenges. Particularly smallholder farming in sub-Saharan Africa is in substantial need of sustainable solutions. Yet, the adoption of already existing sustainable agricultural practices such as agroforestry often remains low. This paper aims to deepen the understanding of smallholders’ decision-making processes for agroforestry adoption. Using the example of a CIFOR-ICRAF agroforestry project (Fruit Tree Portfolios), we examine the associated influences of ambition and livelihood aspirations on adoption and assess the impact of agroforestry on household well-being. We conduct several statistical analyses, including a logistic regression on the influence of ambitions and aspirations on adoption, and a linear regression with endogenous treatment effects and propensity score matching to assess the impact of adoption on well-being. The analyses are based on a primary data set collected from rural Kenyan households that participated in the project in 2021.We confirm the inverted U-shaped relationship between ambition and the willingness to take proactive steps, in this case the adoption of agroforestry, and emphasize its relevance for decision-making processes. In addition, livelihood aspirations towards off- or on-farm activities promoted the likelihood of adoption. Due to the versatility of integrating fruit trees into farms, they can serve both market- and food security-oriented purposes and thus supporting livelihoods in multiple ways. This is confirmed by the positive results of adoption on household well-being in terms of food security and household income. In summary, the inclusion of cognitive factors such as ambition and livelihood aspirations can help explain the adoption decisions of smallholder households and support inclusive and customized project designs. In the long term, these findings could have the potential to ensure that development interventions are adopted more successfully.

Production Choices and Food Security: A Review of Studies Based on a Micro-Diversity Perspective.

Given the 'subsistence' character of smallholder production, agricultural production diversification is often seen as an effective strategy for smallholders to improve their diets' diversity and nutritional status, yet the existing evidence remains inadequate. The study applies bibliometric data from the "Web of Science" database to synthesize 46 papers from developing countries to explore the relationship between production diversity, dietary diversity, and nutrition in smallholder households. The study identifies the most influential journals, authors, organizations, and countries and reveals research themes related to agricultural production and food security. This data analysis can help researchers target potential collaborators and access influential literature in agricultural production diversity and dietary diversity research. In addition, the results showed that agricultural production diversity potentially influences households' dietary diversity, with mixed results: Agricultural production diversification is the primary way to improve food and nutritional security among smallholder families with low socio-economic status, inaccessible transportation, and poverty; market access and trade have more potential to improve dietary diversity among smallholder households with well-developed markets and higher income levels; the significant measures of agricultural production diversity include Crop Counts, FGPD, SI, and SWDI; the significant measures of dietary diversity include HDDS and IDDS. This paper provides a roadmap for agricultural production and food security researchers by conducting a systematic review of the literature, summarizing some research methods and perspectives applicable to local socio-economic development.

Smallholders’ vulnerability in the maize market: An analysis of marketing channels to improve the role of cooperatives in Benin

Smallholder households in developing countries often face challenges related to market access. Despite being proposed as a potential solution, cooperatives in the north of Benin have reportedly failed to effectively address this issue. The alternatives channels used by smallholder famers and the factors that influence their choices remain unclear. This paper adopts a mixed approach, combining qualitative analysis with quantitative methods, particularly the multivariate probit model, to investigate the distribution channels of maize used by farmers in the Kandi district of Benin. The study aims to identify the current distribution channels of maize in Kandi and analyze factors that affect, smallholder producers choice of marketing channel. Initially, the study identified four primary channels for marketing maize—namely, collectors, wholesalers, brokers, and cooperatives—and producers typically commonly engage in multiple channels simultaneously. Subsequently, It becomes evident that factors such as age, cooperative membership, distance to market, reliance on informal credit, average maize bag prices, and the timing of sales significantly influence producers' selection of marketing channels. Interestingly, despite cooperatives offering comparatively higher prices, the majority of farmers opt for collectors due to the informal credit they provide and their practice of purchasing large volumes of maize bags at pre-agreed prices. In conclusion, enhancing joint-selling capabilities of cooperatives and establishing a credit provision business tailored to maize producers are identified as crucial steps. These measures aim to alleviate producers’ financial strain, diminish their dependence on collectors for credit, and bolster their bargaining power in the market.