Smallholder Forestry Research Articles

Future forestry employment and education

Summary Formal and informal rules create an institutional framework that governs the operations of a democratic society. They require various forms of organisational structures to implement them. These are the oft-forgotten links in sustainable forest management and good forest governance. This paper examines some of the major causal influences that have shaped and are shaping institutional frameworks and supporting organisations in Australia and that are likely to influence forestry employment and education. These include sometimes conflicting, sometimes complementary, influences between state and corporate forestry, industrial and smallholder forestry, in-house expertise and contracting out, regulation and certification, and decentralisation and centralisation. Because institutional change is often largely a political response to satisfy different constituents, change is likely to continue, with increasing diversity in the resulting organisations and complexity in their interactions. Competitive market processes will increasingly replace bureaucratic allocation and management wherever commercial products and services are supplied or wherever potentially commercial services can be hived off from state departments. Almost every conceivable combination now exists in the organisational structures responsible for state forestry policy, regulation, commercial timber management, reserve management, research and fire management across the different states of Australia. The greatest challenge for forestry education in Australia is whether the gulf in the mutual perceptions of the major timber management and reserve management organisations can be bridged to take advantage of the mutual concerns while acknowledging and respecting the differences. Forestry education needs revision to deal with the demands for core subjects and specialisation, the roles of kindred education courses, manageable costs, and the differing needs of polity in relation to forestry.

Satisfaction across urban consumers of smallholder-produced teak ( Tectona grandis L.f.) poles in South Benin

The study used the expectancy-disconfirmation framework to investigate the satisfaction among urban consumers of teak pole in South Benin, so as to identify the areas where interventions are needed to secure market opportunity for smallholder forestry. A survey was conducted in five cities; and 223 household-heads were interviewed using systematic sampling, with a random start. Data were collected on socio-demographic characteristics, teak pole consumption forms, behaviour patterns, and motivations. Respondents also rated their expectations and perceptions for a set of nine attributes on a 7 points Likert scale. Hierarchical ascending cluster analysis was performed to identify consumer segments; and satisfaction level was analysed per segment, by determining the gap between expectations and perceptions, for all attributes. Four consumer segments were identified; and sociodemographic profiles differed across those segments. Competitive price was an important purchasing motivation across the identified segments. Consumers were dissatisfied with price, availability, knot frequency, bending, length, hardness, and durability of teak pole. The efforts to meet the consumer expectations should be concentrated on building farmers' capacity in silvicultural management, and ensuring the availability of good planting material. The issue of competitive price might be addressed, through the improvement of the overall efficiency in the value chain.

Decentralization of Tree Seedling Supply Systems for Afforestation in the West of Yunnan Province, China

At present, China has the highest afforestation rate of any country or region in the world, with 47,000 km(2) of tree plantations undertaken in 2008. While the prominent role of the central government's afforestation programs is well-known, little is understood of how the system of tree seedling production and distribution supports afforestation efforts. More importantly, little attention is paid to how small-scale farmers access high quality tree germplasm in the afforestation programs. This paper examines the seedling supply system in the west of Yunnan Province in China by focusing on the three types of tree nurseries (state, collective and individual) that are being operated for the development of smallholder forestry especially in the context of decentralization. The research reveals that forestry decentralization has provided support for smallholder access to high quality planting materials and improved the effectiveness of nursery management. The reform has enabled the engagement of various forms of nurseries and created a hybrid system of state nursery operations. However, the state monopoly over the major seedling supply system using its inherent technical, market, policy and institutional advantages has limited the development of small-scale nurseries. The policy implication of this research is that improvements to the governance structure in the supply system of tree seedling may require more investment in nursery techniques, market information and provision of incentives to enhance small-scale nurseries and to contribute to seedling production.

Financial Modelling of Smallholder Seedling Production

A financial model of smallholder forestry seedling nursery on Leyte Island has been developed as a contribution to the ACIAR project ASEM/2006/091 – Enhancing tree seedling supply via economic and policy changes in the Philippines nursery sector. Two versions of this model have been developed – one for a best management practice nursery and one for a representative smallholder nursery. This paper describes the data collection, and model development and implementation. Some implications are drawn for policy development concerning adoption of best management practice in smallholder nurseries. Possibilities for further development and application of the seedling nursery model are discussed.

The Seedling Nursery Survey on Leyte Island, the Philippines

Private and government nurseries in the Philippines are not delivering high quality planting materials of a wide species base for smallholder forestry, tree farming and reforestation programs in the country. A project supported by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) has been conducted to improve the operational effectiveness of the forest nursery sector in the Philippines. Surveys involving personal interviews of nursery operators, observations of the nursery design and facilities and assessment of seedling quality have been undertaken in Leyte (reported in this paper) and in Mindanao to provide baseline information for designing possible interventions. The Leyte study revealed that the low operational effectiveness of forest nurseries is a result of a combination of social, economic, technical and political factors. The majority of private nurseries are managed by resourceconstrained smallholders with little access to high quality seedling production technologies. Seedling production, both in private and government nurseries, is largely quantity-oriented and the pathway of high quality germplasm is not well developed. Government nurseries operate to provide free seedlings but this scheme results in crowding out the small-scale private nurseries, reducing the operational effectiveness of the private nursery sector. It appears that improving the operational effectiveness of the forest nursery sector in the Philippines requires policy changes to re-organize the operation of private and government nurseries and to strengthen the implementation of existing policies regulating the quality of planting stock from the forest nursery sector.

Compiling Market and Other Financial Data on Smallholder Forestry in Leyte, the Philippines

Data collection and maintenance of databases concerning smallholder forestry presents special problems in developing countries. This paper examines forestry data collection experiences in a series of research projects in Leyte, Philippines, supported by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, and the prospects for developing forestry accounting networks. A variety of financial data have been collected in relation to seedling production, plantation performance and timber marketing. Seedling production cost and revenue data have been obtained through snapshot surveys conducted in 2002 and 2008, and repeated attempts have been made to estimate financial returns from growing the most popular tree species. Diverse sources have been identified for timber market information. On the supply side, these include government records of registered plantations, obtaining inventory data from barangay (community) leaders, and reporting information about timber available for harvest on community notice boards. On the demand side, official records of registered timber merchants have been accessed, a detailed survey of timber processors has been conducted, and estimates are being made of apparent per capita timber consumption by district. Experiences in the Philippines reinforce that the potential for forestry accounting networks is limited by the resource-constrained situations of developing countries, placing greater reliance on one-off surveys. Use of pre-existing local networks and institutional structures offers potential for routine collection of forestry data, such as through barangay (village) leaders in the Philippines.

A Critical Overview of Forestry Seedling Production Policies and Practices in Relation to Smallholder Forestry in Developing Countries

This paper reviews forestry seedling production systems in South-east and East Asia and identifies problems with respect to seedling quality, seedling distribution and financial sustainability, and measures which have been adopted or advocated to improve performance in this sector. The paper draws in particular on experience in a series of research projects on smallholder forestry in the Philippines. Some observations are also drawn from the following papers in this combined special issue of Small-scale Forestry. It is found that a mix of public and private sector models are adopted for forestry seedling production, between and even within countries. Often nurseries are set up to provide seedlings for a government-directed expansion in tree planting, and have difficulty surviving once the initial planting purpose is completed. Private nurseries often lack resources, and depend on contracts to supply seedlings for financial viability. Demand tends to be highest for fast-growing species (often exotics), fruit trees, and ornamentals in the case of urban nurseries. Government policies typically favour quantity over quality of the seedlings produced. Considerable scope exists for adopting best or at least improved management practice in seedling nurseries.

Enhancing Tree Seedling Supply to Smallholders in Leyte Province, Philippines: An Evaluation of the Production System of Government Nursery Sector and Support to Smallholder Tree Farmers

A decentralized seedling production is regarded as the most effective means of providing smallholders with planting materials. However, the sustainability of smallholder nursery operation is constrained by several factors, including the limited availability of germplasm, lack of technical skills and low seedling demand low viability of seedling market. The government nursery sector could complement the weaknesses of the smallholder nursery group but government nurseries are not operating effectively to enhance the availability of high quality seedlings of a wide species base for smallholder forestry. Seedling production in government nurseries is quantity-orientated with low emphasis on the production of high quality planting materials. Germplasm used in seedling production is mostly collected from unselected sources and seedlings produced are mostly of low physical quality. The species selection in government nurseries is heavily based on the availability of germplasm which resulted in the production of a few species which are commonly raised on private nurseries. The duplication of species of most seedlings raised in government nurseries with those produced in private nurseries and the far distance of government nurseries from the villages has resulted in low uptake of seedlings by smallholder tree farmers. For the government nursery sector to become more effective in providing support in the present paradigm of decentralized seeding production, a change from its production system and a broadening of the role it plays is needed. The social mobilization on seedling production as a scheme of implementing the Green Philippines Program has led the Department of Environment and Natural Resources to acknowledge the seedling production activity of private individual and communal nursery groups. This can be an opportunity for organizing the private and government nursery sectors to promote the operational effectiveness of the overall forest nursery industry.

Amazon Forestry Transformed: Integrating Knowledge for Smallholder Timber Management in Eastern Brazil

Recent discussions of local knowledge emphasize its dynamic nature invoking local peoples’ ability to effectively integrate traditional or local with science-based or “modern” knowledges. The smallholder timber industry of the Amazon’s estuarine floodplain provides an outstanding example of local patterns of resource management and economic activities transformed from within by smallholder farmers who participated in the industrial timber boom of the 1970s and 1980s. These farmers of eastern Amazonia have developed a vertically integrated local industry based on expertise reflecting profound locally developed knowledge of specific forests and management of ecological processes, individual observation and experimentation, as well as concepts and practices derived from temporary employment by large-scale industrial timber firms. At each stage of the smallholder forestry process—from managing natural regeneration to running small sawmills and marketing lumber—local managers apply an innovative set of practices reflecting their diverse experiences. This combination of technical, market, and ecological knowledge results in forests, timber markets, and economic patterns that do not correspond to many of the widely-held generalizations concerning either local or industrial tropical timber exploitation. This article uses data from 7 years of research in the Amazon floodplain.

Ensuring a future for collective forestry in China's southwest: Adding human and social capital to policy reforms

Worldwide, the potential of smallholder forestry to meet policymakers' economic and environmental objectives is gaining increased recognition. In Southwest China, a significant portion of forests are owned and managed by smallholder, village collectives. Decisions made now will determine whether the potential of collective forestry in Southwest China can be realized, or whether smallholder forests are ultimately consolidated into larger holdings. This analysis traces the history of collective forest management in four villages in northwest Yunnan, highlighting four issues fundamental to unlocking the potential of collective forestry: policy support, forestry approach, village institutions, and multi-scale governance. Policy reforms are necessary but not sufficient as a means to bring improvements in these four areas. Investments in human and social capital–linked to the process of building more formal institutions–are essential beside longer-term institutional change.

Building-up partnerships for community forestry: The ACIAR Smallholder Forestry Project experience

This paper reports experiences of the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) Smallholder Forestry Project in the establishment of working relationships with a people’s organisation in Leyte Province, Philippines. Strategies adopted in building a partnership with the organisation through the establishment of a community nursery, conduct of field trial research and the emerging practical impacts on smallholders are specifically discussed. Information presented in this paper is the outcome of documented field experiences during the research as well as informal discussions with members of the people’s organisation. This project illustrates that within-community research can be an effective extension tool if local people are given the chance to participate in all stages of planning and implementation. Mere participation in research activities, however, is not enough. Continuing interaction between the researchers and the local people is crucial in paving the way to partnership building. The developmental partnership that was established has created practical impacts which may lead to more widespread adoption and promotion of farm and community forestry in Leyte Province.

Small-scale forestry development in Leyte, Philippines: The central role of nurseries

This paper presents results of survey research into the role of the forestry nursery sector in the development of smallholder forestry in Leyte, Philippines. Seedling production in the province is basically carried out by three categories of nurseries: individual, communal and the government. Seedlings in the government nurseries are primarily raised for free distribution to landholders but the extension scheme fails to reach the majority of the smallholder farmers. Seedling demand of landholders is mostly catered for by the more numerous and accessible individual and communal nurseries. However, problems of capital outlay, sources and supply of germplasm, technical knowledge in nursery management for both timber and fruit trees and low sales are among the major impediments in the sustainability of small-scale nurseries. Most of the communal nurseries fail to sustain the operation after the withdrawal of supporting agencies. Knowledge on site-species matching is needed not only by small-scale nursery operators but also by the managers of government nurseries. It is concluded that the seedling industry in the province is not well established and there is a need to organise better the overall nursery system so as to improve the availability of seedlings and promote appropriate site and species combinations.

Past and present forestry support programs in the Philippines, and lessons for the future

A variety of government programs have been implemented to support smallholder forestry for production and conservation purposes in the Philippines. This paper briefly outlines the arrangements of the past and current programs, notes how they have evolved over time, and provides some comments on their performance. Over about 30 years, as weaknesses have been identified in programs, the program designs have been modified. For most of this time, there has been an increasing emphasis on community involvement as distinct from industrial or individual farmer forestry. However, some of the intractable constraints on community planting have led to recent interest in individual property rights.

KEYS TO SMALLHOLDER FORESTRY

ABSTRACT Most commercial forest plantations have been developed on a large scale, by governments and corporations. Smallholder plantation forestry (including farm woodlots and agro-forestry) has been seen as an anomaly which requires special governmental assistance schemes and subsidies. This paper argues that tree-farming is a quite normal and common economic undertaking for small farmers and investors, wherever particular conditions are met and obstacles are not placed in the way. The paper is based on the author's personal experience and observations in many developing countries of Asia and Africa, as well as Australia, North America and Europe, over the past thirty years. These observations cover over 20 contexts in which farm forestry has flourished, and over 40 where it either has failed, or has not been tried. By reflecting on this diverse experience, the author has attempted to identify some general ‘rules of thumb’ and the preconditions for success, so that research and development efforts or policy interventions can be focused to remove the key impediments and disincentives. Many previous ‘assistance schemes’ for smallholder forestry have been ineffective because they took a very partial or inaccurate view of smallholder decision-making, which failed to recognise explicitly the interconnections between production, markets and policies.

FINANCIAL EVALUATION TOOLS FOR SMALLHOLDER FORESTRY: A METHODOLOGICAL COMPARISON OF TWO FORMS OF COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS AND OPTIMISATION

SUMMARY Based on a simple hypothetical example of a smallholder farm with two cropping systems (cassava and afforestation) from Costa Rica, the article compares two cost-benefit analysis (CBA) techniques with a spreadsheet optimisation model. The prevailing convenient method to evaluate smallholder forestry, exante financial CBA, suffers from using opportunity costs and discount rates, and its inability to optimise the profit from a specific combination of available resources and their constraints in a farm system. Without using opportunity costs and discount rates—which disfavour long term investments like tree growing—optimisation can find the most profitable resource allocation over a chosen period and correspondingly, the maximum increase of family welfare. Optimisation is advantageous in that it considers farmers' goals and constraints and is able to indicate the resource bottlenecks which need to be overcome. A wider use of the ‘with-and-without project’ CBA and of optimisation models is recommended...