Smallholder Farmers Research Articles

Management of maize-legume conservation agriculture systems rather than varietal choice fosters human nutrition in Malawi

Malawi smallholder farmers are facing climate-induced challenges that have increased food and nutrition insecurity in the country, thus sustainable intensification practices has been widely recommended. The objective of this study was to assess the effects of cropping systems with improved varieties on total system productivity and nutrition under different environments. The study involved on-farm experiments in ten communities in Central and Southern Malawi, incrementally established from 2005/2006 to 2018/2019 cropping seasons. Each community had six demonstration plots with three main treatments: conventional ploughing (CP): sole maize grown on seasonally constructed ridges and furrows; no-tillage (NT): sole maize grown on retained ridges with minimum soil disturbance and residue retained; and Conservation agriculture (CA): maize intercropped either cowpea, pigeon pea or groundnut on retained ridges as in NT. Our results show that total system nutrition was higher in CA treatments than NT and CP. The yields of maize were at least 800 kg ha−1 higher in CA and NT than CP despite the variety that was grown. Legume yields were also higher under CA and NT than CP. High protein yield was observed in CA systems (at least 100 kg ha−1 higher than CP) where maize and legume intercrops were rotated with grain legumes. Our results show nutrients and energy gains in CA and NT systems that can be invested in practices that increases the resilience of smallholder farmers to climate change. Conservation agriculture and NT systems have more influence on productivity of smallholder farms, despite the genotypes used (hybrids or OPVs).

Unveiling Genetic Potential for Equine Meat Production: A Bioinformatics Approach.

In view of the predicted significant increase in global meat production, alternative sources such as horsemeat are becoming increasingly important due to their lower environmental impact and high nutritional value. This study aimed to identify SNP markers on the GeneSeek® Genomic Profiler™ Equine (Neogen, Lansing, MI, USA) that are important for horsemeat production traits. First, orthologous genes related to meat yield in cattle and common genes between horses and cattle within QTLs for body size and weight were identified. Markers for these genes were then evaluated based on predicted variant consequences, GERP scores, and positions within constrained elements and orthologous regulatory regions in pigs. A total of 268 markers in 57 genes related to meat production were analyzed. This resulted in 27 prioritized SNP markers in 22 genes, including notable markers in LCORL, LASP1, IGF1R, and MSTN. These results will benefit smallholder farmers by providing genetic insights for selective breeding that could improve meat yield. This study also supports future large-scale genetic analyses such as GWAS and Genomic Best Linear Unbiased Prediction (GBLUP). The results of this study may be helpful in improving the accuracy of genomic breeding values. However, limitations include reliance on bioinformatics without experimental validation. Future research can validate these markers and consider a wider range of traits to ensure accuracy in equine breeding.

Computational models for improving surveillance for the early detection of direct introduction of cassava brown streak disease in Nigeria.

Cassava is a key source of calories for smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa but its role as a food security crop is threatened by the cross-continental spread of cassava brown streak disease (CBSD) that causes high yield losses. In order to mitigate the impact of CBSD, it is important to minimise the delay in first detection of CBSD after introduction to a new country or state so that interventions can be deployed more effectively. Using a computational model that combines simulations of CBSD spread at both the landscape and field scales, we model the effectiveness of different country level survey strategies in Nigeria when CBSD is directly introduced. We find that the main limitation to the rapid CBSD detection in Nigeria, using the current survey strategy, is that an insufficient number of fields are surveyed in newly infected Nigerian states, not the total number of fields surveyed across the country, nor the limitation of only surveying fields near a road. We explored different strategies for geographically selecting fields to survey and found that early and consistent CBSD detection will involve confining candidate survey fields to states where CBSD has not yet been detected and where survey locations are allocated in proportion to the density of cassava crops, detects CBSD sooner, more consistently, and when the epidemic is smaller compared with distributing surveys uniformly across Nigeria.

Smallholder Challenges of Social and Economic Upgrading in Agricultural Value Chains: A Cross-country, Cross-crop Comparison

This study is based on field research conducted by an international team of researchers investigating the opportunities for social upgrading of smallholder farm owners and tenants and their workers in the Global South. The main objective has been to assess the influence of crop characteristics, end markets, and value chain governance (including product and process standards), as well as national political, economic, and cultural contexts, on the conditions of farmers and farmworkers. Accordingly, the selected crops differ along the axes of domestic versus international end markets and short versus long shelf-life: coffee (cash crop), rice (staple crop), and mangoes (perishable crop). The selected countries are Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia, Ghana, India, Pakistan, and Vietnam. Our main findings relate to the importance of collective action by key stakeholders, including smallholders and a supportive state, for economic and social upgrading.

Evaluating the Response of Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus (L.) to Organic and Inorganic Fertilization in Makurdi, Southern Guinea Savannah, Nigeria

Watermelon consumption in Nigeria is on the increase due to increasing awareness of its nutritional value while its production is on the decrease due to inefficiency of resource management (inputs like fertilizers). This study aims to optimize watermelon (Citrullus lanatus L.) production through the use of organic and inorganic fertilizers. The field experiment was conducted at the Teaching and Research Farm of Joseph Sarwuan Tarka University, Makurdi in the 2019 cropping season under rain-fed conditions. The site falls within the Latitude 7°4'1N and Longitude 8°3'7E at an elevation of about 97m above sea level in the Southern Guinea Savanna Agro-ecological Zone of Nigeria. The experiment treatments, namely and they were T1 (Control 0kg/ha), T2 (150 kg/ha Compost), T3 (200 kg/ha Compost), T4 (250 kg/ha Compost) and T5 (300 kg/ha NPK 20:10:10) laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. The study revealed that in comparison with control treatments, 300 kg/ha NPK 20:10:10 produced (31.04t/ha) fruit yield, the application of 250 kg/ha compost enhanced growth and yield parameters of watermelon with fruit yield of (17.65t/ha). The research findings suggest that using compost manure at the rate of 250 kg/ha for watermelon production is viable since it is economical and environmentally friendly alternative to NPK fertilizer due to it cheap and easy to prepare methods, its beneficial effects on soil, groundwater and the environment. It is further recommended that, in Makurdi, smallholder farmers, should adopt the application of compost at the rate of 250 kg/ha for optimum yield

Adaptation strategies of smallholder farmers to climate variability and change in Konso, Ethiopia

This study investigates the adaptation strategies employed by smallholder farmers in Konso, Ethiopia, to cope with climate change and variability. A survey of 355 smallholder households revealed that farmers utilize various indigenous techniques, including terracing, agroforestry, intercropping, and traditional irrigation practices, to adapt to climate change. The adoption of these strategies is influenced by factors such as education level, landholding size, income level, access to climate information, credit, and extension services. Despite these efforts, smallholder farmers in Konso continue to face challenges in ensuring food security due to recurrent droughts and unpredictable rainfall patterns. To enhance the sustainability of indigenous farming systems in Konso, this study recommends providing regular weather information, accessible credit services, crop insurance options, and capacity building through extension services, with a focus on inclusive approaches that cater to uneducated farmers.

Technical efficiency of maize production and their determinants among smallholder farmers in Ethiopia: a case study in Sidama Region

Technical efficiency of maize production and their determinants among smallholder farmers in Ethiopia: a case study in Sidama Region

Impact of crop commercialization on smallholder farmers’ resilience to shocks: Evidence from panel data for rural Southeast Asia

We assess the impact of crop commercialization on the resilience to shocks of smallholder farmers and examine which groups of smallholders are more resilient from crop commercialization. We use balanced panel of 1,370 smallholders from Thailand and 1,497 smallholders from Vietnam collected in three survey waves for the empirical analysis. We employ a generalized structural equation model to estimate the (latent) variable of smallholders’ resilience. Then, we apply fixed-effects estimations with an instrumental variable and a control function approach to address the endogeneity concerns of crop commercialization in assessing the impact of commercialization on the resilience of smallholders. The results show that crop commercialization has a positive effect on smallholders’ resilience capacity. To examine which groups of smallholders are more resilient from crop commercialization, we apply an unconditional quantile regression model. The results show that crop commercialization has the highest impact on smallholders in 10th and 25th quantile groups of resilience capacity. Thus, crop commercialization should be stimulated to improve smallholders’ resilience to shocks. Besides, improving infrastructure for transportation and information and communication technology at the village level and the effectiveness of public governance at the national level could lead to a better resilience of smallholders.

Contributing to sustainable smallholder agriculture through optimizing key agricultural inputs in China

Smallholder agriculture contributes substantially to global food production, yet often does not follow the most sustainable practices. Different agricultural inputs result in variegated and unpredictable economic and environmental outcomes. Here, we developed a generalizable approach to promote multi-objective coordination by optimizing smallholder agricultural inputs, and then applied it in winter wheat-summer maize rotation systems in the North China Plain. We found that smallholder farmers used a large range of agricultural inputs, with maximum and minimum values differing by a factor of 2.4–14. Using a structural equation model, we determined that pesticide, working hours, irrigating water, and chemical N fertilizer were the key inputs influencing food security, economic sustainability, resource sustainability, and environmental sustainability, respectively, with standardized path coefficients of −0.224, −0.436, −0.643, and −0.901. Lastly, we calculated that optimizing agricultural inputs can potentially improve food security, economic sustainability, resource sustainability, and environmental sustainability by 9–27%, 15–61%, 8–20%, and 5–14%, respectively. Our framework provides a generalizable approach for smallholder agriculture-dominated areas to achieve multi-objective sustainability.

Participation in land rental and labor markets and agricultural economic performance of banana farmers in China

The emerging marketization of agricultural factors allows farmers to expand agricultural production by renting in farmland from land rental market or purchasing services through labor market. Farmers’ transactions in the two markets can stimulate the agricultural transformation in developing countries, but may increase their financial burden in agriculture. Based on the primary data collected from banana farmers in China, this study attempts to clarify farmers categories based on their different choices regarding participation in land rental and labor markets for agricultural production, analyze the determinants of farmers’ simultaneous participation in the two markets, and explore heterogenous effects of farmers’ market participation on agricultural economic performances using the multinomial endogenous switching treatment regression model. The results show that farmer’s tie to retailers is highlighted as an important driving force behind farmers’ simultaneous participation in the two markets, while their participation choices are also varying due to different household head characteristics and family resource endowments. Farmers who participated in the two markets significantly reduce the cost of material input in agricultural production, but the total production cost of participants is higher than that of non-participants due to the high rent of land resource and cost of hired labor for production services. Interestingly, farmers’ participation in land rental market increases the yield of their farms, while participation in labor market has a negative impact on the yield. Farmers’ participation in both land rental and labor markets can significantly increase farm net income by nearly 67 %. In contrast, participation in labor market decreased farm net income by 22 %, whilst participation in land rental market increased farm net income by 186 %, though without statistical significance. The findings underscore the important role of land rental markets in boosting farm economic performance. Policymakers can facilitate land transfer among smallholder farmers in the land rental market and promote agricultural technologies to substitute labor force so as to reduce the adverse effect of labor market, thereby improving agricultural economic performances in developing regions.

Set when the sun rises, rise when the sun sets: Climate change adaptive strategies of small holder farmers in Vietnam

Set when the sun rises, rise when the sun sets: Climate change adaptive strategies of small holder farmers in Vietnam

Pooled network analysis of pesticide exposure mixtures in conventional and organic smallholder farmers in Uganda and Costa Rica

Pooled network analysis of pesticide exposure mixtures in conventional and organic smallholder farmers in Uganda and Costa Rica

Simulation of smallholder farmers’ adaptation to irrigation-induced landslides: An ABM application in human-land-policy interaction

Understanding the dynamic interaction between smallholder farmers' adaptation decision-making behavior and the policy environment in the context of human-induced disasters is vital for developing effective policies to enhance farmers' participation in disaster risk reduction (DRR). From the perspective of bounded rationality theory, this study constructs the farmer-land-policy interaction (FLPI) model, taking Heifangtai in Loess Plateau, China, as a case study. Based on first-hand micro data, this study combines static econometric model analysis with dynamic simulation techniques, achieving a combination of micro decision-making and macro policies to understand the interaction between farmers and the policy environment. The FLPI model simulates farmers' future adaptations under multiple policy scenarios (baseline, mandatory policy, and subsidy policy scenario with a combination of different policy tools) from 2021 to 2030. Compared with the simulation results of the baseline scenario, the results indicate that mandatory and subsidy policies are effective interventions incentivizing farmers’ adaptation behavior for effective DRR. Mandatory policies rely on policy intervention to ensure that farmers adopt drip irrigation and to promote the generation of long-term behavior of farmers. And the results also propose a suitable subsidy range of 700–900 yuan and with a period of more than 2 years for subsidy policy. This study enriches the research on the interaction simulation between farmer behavior and policy environment under the background of human-induced disasters. And the FLPI model uses survey data as input, which could provide behavior rules closer to real situations than that of simplifying assumptions. The research indicates that the “bottom-up” approach of the FLPI model proven more appropriate to presenting micro-level adaptation and dynamic changes than traditional statistical models.And the agent-based model is very suitable for simulating the behavioral decision-making changes of farmers in policy environments.

Gendered implications for climate change adaptation among farmers in Madagascar

ABSTRACT Climate change is impacting farmers worldwide; none more so than the millions of smallholder farmers who rely entirely on rain-fed agriculture. Adapting agricultural practices is an important strategy to mitigate climate change’s harmful impacts to food security and livelihoods. Researchers have increasingly sought to understand the factors influencing farmer decision-making on adaptation practices but application of important theories in low-income country contexts is lacking. Therefore, we apply the Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) to examine farmer intention to adopt agricultural practices in response to climate change based on a survey of 328 smallholder farmers in rural Madagascar. Using structural equation modeling (SEM) to describe the relationship between social connectedness (e.g., interactions with others about farming-related issues), PMT constructs (threat and coping appraisal), and intention to adapt agricultural practices to climate change, we find that coping appraisal is a stronger predictor of intention to adapt than threat appraisal. Further, SEM results show a significant negative relationship between social connectedness and threat appraisal – farmers with greater social connectedness perceive climate change to be less of a threat. Additionally, as female farmers are significantly less socially connected than male farmers, this study provides further evidence of the gendered vulnerabilities to climate change among smallholders. This research has implications for the design of policies and interventions that consider farmer social networks, critical for reducing threat and building coping capacity, in supporting adaptation to climate change among vulnerable farmer populations.

A Novel Approach for Farmland Size Estimation in Small-Scale Agriculture Using Edge Counting and Remote Sensing

Accurate and timely information on farmland size is crucial for agricultural development, resource management, and other related fields. However, there is currently no mature method for estimating farmland size in smallholder farming areas. This is due to the small size of farmland plots in these areas, which have unclear boundaries in medium and high-resolution satellite imagery, and irregular shapes that make it difficult to extract complete boundaries using morphological rules. Automatic farmland mapping algorithms using remote sensing data also perform poorly in small-scale farming areas. To address this issue, this study proposes a farmland size evaluation index based on edge frequency (ECR). The algorithm utilizes the high temporal resolution of Sentinel-2 satellite imagery to compensate for its spatial resolution limitations. First, all Sentinel-2 images from one year are used to calculate edge frequencies, which can divide farmland areas into low-value farmland interior regions, medium-value non-permanent edges, and high-value permanent edges (PE). Next, the Otsu’s thresholding algorithm is iteratively applied twice to the edge frequencies to first extract edges and then permanent edges. The ratio of PE to cropland (ECR) is then calculated. Using the North China Plain and Northeast China Plain as study areas, and comparing with existing farmland size datasets, the appropriate estimation radius for ECR was determined to be 1600 m. The study found that the peak ECR value for the Northeast China Plain was 0.085, and the peak value for the North China Plain was 0.105. The overall distribution was consistent with the reference dataset.

Can digital technology promote market participation among smallholder farmers?

Abstract Digital technology holds significant potential for enhancing business efficiency in agricultural marketing. However, empirical research on the use of digital technology among smallholder farmers engaged in staple crop marketing in Sub-Saharan Africa remains limited. Recognizing the pivotal role of digital technology in agriculture, this study aims to analyse and synthesize existing knowledge regarding the impact of mobile phones on market participation among smallholder farmers. Through a comprehensive analysis, we seek to provide a robust understanding that can inform policies and programs aimed at enhancing smallholder market integration. To achieve this objective, we collected cross-sectional data from 360 farmers in southeast Nigeria and implemented a double hurdle model to analyse market participation decisions and the extent of farmers’ involvement in staple crop markets. In addition to traditional econometric methods, we employed propensity score matching to further investigate the impact of mobile phone ownership on market participation. Our analysis revealed that ICT tools, particularly mobile phones and radios, significantly influence both the decision and intensity of market participation among smallholder farmers. Specifically, mobile phones were found to play a crucial role in facilitating access to market pricing information and disseminating knowledge on improved production methods. Given the volatility of farm prices, the timely dissemination of market information through mobile phones is essential for farmers to make informed decisions. With a high percentage of mobile phone ownership and substantial investments in mobile networks in Nigeria, the digitalization of extension services and marketing information delivery systems could catalyse rapid improvements in agribusiness and marketing. This shift towards digital platforms has the potential to address information asymmetry, particularly among smallholder farmers, thereby fostering greater market integration and economic empowerment within rural communities.

What are the Major Barriers and Challenges Faced by Independent Oil Palm Smallholder Farmers in RSPO Certification?

The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) certification is essential for promoting sustainable palm oil production; however, smallholder farmers face significant obstacles in meeting its standards, hindering their growth. This study aims to identify the main barriers and challenges for independent oil palm smallholders in the RSPO certification process and to propose strategies for overcoming these issues. Using a mixed-methods approach, researchers collected data from 60 smallholders through a snowball sampling method and analyzed it using descriptive statistical techniques such as frequency counts and cross-tabulations. Critical barriers identified include high certification costs, lack of knowledge, limited resources, difficulties tracking production yields, and challenges meeting social requirements. Furthermore, smallholders struggle with adapting cultivation practices, accessing markets, maintaining commitment, building capacity, and navigating bureaucratic hurdles. Organizations are urged to adopt market development strategies, enhance their Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiatives, and facilitate better access to sustainable technologies to tackle these challenges. Additionally, enhancing green skills, simplifying record-keeping, reinforcing farmer groups, and offering financial incentives, including soft loans and tailored training, are critical. Streamlining certification procedures will also alleviate administrative burdens, enabling smallholders to adopt sustainable practices more effectively.

Stevia rebaudiana: Reporting data from the sweetener crop for researchers and smallholder farming assistants

In science, technology and assistance to smallholder farming or large crop acreages of Stevia rebaudiana is necessary to report data using information components to facilitate investors to understand the local field conditions to make assertive economic decisions for long periods. Stevia rebaudiana produces consistent natural sweeteners with safe performance as reported in a multitude of scientific publications. The leaf chemicals components are suitable to humans with healthy disorders affected by the consumption of sugarcane or many other industrial sweeteners. Otherwise, aspects related to the agriculture of sweeteners production still require additional discussion to improve qualitative and quantitative traits necessary for cultivating cost-effective crops. The current text highlighted some agriculture decisions necessary to make the crop more profitable to investors as researchers, agriculture influencers, farmer assistants and consultants of companies looking for alternatives within agro-ecological systems.

Reducing vulnerability to climate change among millet and sorghum farmers in Ghana: interrogating the contribution of climate-smart agriculture in northwestern Ghana

Reducing vulnerability of smallholder farmers to climate change is a global issue. One approach viewed as important in reducing farmers’ vulnerability to climate change is Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA). CSA is often seen as an approach to redefine, reposition and sustainably manage agriculture. Given the importance of CSA practices in sustaining the food needs of many farm households in sub-Saharan Africa and Ghana, this study investigates CSA practices that were introduced to farmers by Center for Indigenous Knowledge and Development (CIKOD), interrogates the contributions of CSA to reducing farmers vulnerability to climate change and established the relationship between CSA and climate change adaptation. The study employed a mixed method approach, using 146 smallholder millet and sorghum farmers. Questionnaire and interviews were used to generate primary data for analysis. Descriptive statistics, involving Chi-square test and relative importance index were used to analyze the questionnaire while thematic analytical approach was used to analyze the interviews. The results of the study revealed that CSA practices such as crop rotation, weed control, contour farming, and land rotation are deployed by smallholder farmers to respond to drought, dry spell and flood in the Municipality. Asset holding capacity, credit, access to climate information, and extension services were found to be key determinants of farmers’ adoption of CSA practices. The study recommends the need for the Ministry of Food and Agriculture to provide some technical support to smallholder farmers to successfully adopt these practices for sustainable farming. Again, the study recommends the need for non-governmental organizations and development partners, which over the years have shown interest in promoting CSA practices among farmers, to continuous to support and promote the adoption of CSA by farmers.

Analysis of smallholder farmers' dynamics of knowledge sharing, skill transfer, and participation in using biogas (application of social network analysis)

Air pollution, population growth, and the lack of fossil energy sources are critical factors that drive people toward clean and renewable energies in the current century. Biogas is suitable for rural farmers as a source of clean energy. Since there are many social interactions in knowledge exchange and sharing, the transfer of skills, and participation among individuals, various actors are involved in the network. The power and influence of actors and the social interactions between smallholder farmers and these actors fuel the development of biogas consumption in rural areas. Therefore, this study analyzes the social network structures and characteristics of various actors by social network analysis (SNA) in knowledge sharing, the transfer of skills, and participation networks among traditional smallholder farmers in Iran. The research sample consisted of some smallholder farmers in four provinces of Fars, Khorasan Razavi, Golestan, and Kermanshah (144 smallholder farmers). The research instrument was a questionnaire designed as a matrix. The findings showed that based on the betweenness centrality score, biogas-consuming smallholder farmers (34.56) and cooperatives of smallholder farmers (24.79) were the main actors in the network of knowledge sharing, respectively. Furthermore, biogas-consuming smallholder farmers (28.04) and pioneer smallholder farmers (27.11) were the main actors in the network of participation, respectively. The betweenness centrality score revealed that cooperatives of smallholder farmers (29.23) and opinion leaders (23.33) were the main actors in the network of skills transfer, respectively. It can be concluded that these actors had high social power and influence among smallholder farmers and can be the core of the smallholder farmers’ social networks. It means that they can influence the development of biogas consumption among Iranian smallholder farmers.