Smallholder Dairy Research Articles

Requirements Engineering of Knowledge Management System for Smallholder Dairy Farmers

Requirements Engineering of Knowledge Management System for Smallholder Dairy Farmers

Innovate, learn, sustain: unveiling dynamics of value addition in smallholder dairy farming

Innovate, learn, sustain: unveiling dynamics of value addition in smallholder dairy farming

Financial Technology Services, Government Regulations and Financial Inclusion of Small-Scale Fish Farmers in Homa Bay County, Kenya

This study explored the impact of FinTech and Government Policies on Financial Inclusion for small-scale fish farmers in Homa Bay County, Kenya. The study focused on how access to finance has been widened through agency banking, mobile money and online banking services among these people who had low incomes or were marginalized. The research also examined whether government regulations affect the relationship between fintech channels and financial inclusion. The study was underpinned by Innovation Diffusion Theory, Financial Intermediation Theory, Technology Acceptance Theory and Public Interest Regulation Theory. This study employed causal research design with a sample size of 495 small scale fish farmers using stratified random sampling technique that yielded 144 respondents. Data analysis involved multiple regression, correlation analysis and diagnostic tests that utilized SPSS 26.0 for data analysis. The results showed that agency banking; mobile money services and online banking together explained 58.1% of variation in financial inclusion among the farmers indicated by R squared of 0.581.The findings revealed that Agency Banking had significant effect on financial inclusion (β = .231, p = .001 < .05), as well as Mobile Money Services (β = .196, p = .019 < .05) and Online Banking Services (β = .410, p = .000 < .05). Therefore, the study concludes that Agency Banking; Mobile Money and Online Banking play important role in enhancing financial autonomy among small scale fish farming communities through increased access to bank accounts, secured transactions processes and agent incomes respectively. In view of the findings, the study recommends that financial institutions together with fintech companies should invest in platforms which are user-friendly safe secure meant for use by small holder dairy farmers themselves. Keywords: Agency banking, Mobile money services, Online banking services, Government regulations, Financial technology services, Financial inclusion

A pilot survey on knowledge, attitudes, and practices of smallholder dairy owners towards the importance of colostrum feeding to newborn calf in Humbo District of Wolaita Zone, Southern Ethiopia

BackgroundColostrum is the secretion produced by the mammary gland of mammals and it is passively transferred immunity that protects neonates from infectious diseases.MethodsA cross-sectional study was conducted from December 2021 to June 2022 to assess the community’s knowledge, attitude, and practice of smallholder dairy owners towards the importance of colostrum feeding to newborn calves in Humbo districts. A structured questionnaire was provided for 400 randomly selected smallholder dairy owners for face-to-face interviews.ResultsThe results showed that females (21.6%), college and university levels (20.2%), farmers (15.4%), and single individuals (17.6%) had better knowledge compared to the respective status of respondents on colostrum feeding practices. Also, there was an association between sex, occupation, marital status, and knowledge of colostrum-feeding practices. Similarly, 32.5% of respondents with an elementary background practice the separation of calves from the dam soon after birth to prevent transmission of infection. There was an association between the educational background of the respondents and the perception of the respondents regarding colostrum feeding to newborn calves. Nearly, 30% of respondents had an elementary education background waiting for their calf to get up on its own and suckle from their dam. Likewise, 26.1%, 31.5%, and 23.8% of illiterate, elementary, college, and university graduate respondents, respectively, provide calves with 10 to 12% of their birth weight as colostrum within the first 8 h of calf’s life. Besides, the majority of the respondents (27.5%) believed that colostrum was the best food for calves’ growth, and the level of circulating antibodies in the calf's blood has a direct influence on its disease resistance.ConclusionThe study revealed that smallholder dairy owners have different perceptions concerning knowledge, practice, and attitude on the importance and time of feeding colostrum to neonates during the early life of postpartum. Thus, awareness creation and training programs should be provided for smallholder dairy farmers as well as the use of colostrum feeding, and its role in the prevention of neonatal and preweaning calf mortality and morbidity.

Assessing lameness prevalence and associated risk factors in crossbred dairy cows across diverse management environments

BackgroundA thorough understanding of lameness prevalence is essential for evaluating the impact of this condition on the dairy industry and assessing the effectiveness of preventive strategies designed to minimize its occurrence. Therefore, this cross-sectional study aimed to ascertain the prevalence of lameness and identify potential risk factors associated with lameness in Holstein Friesian crossbred cows across both commercial and smallholder dairy production systems in Bengaluru Rural District of Karnataka, India.MethodsThe research encompassed six commercial dairy farms and 139 smallholder dairy farms, involving a total of 617 Holstein Friesian crossbred cattle. On-site surveys were conducted at the farms, employing a meticulously designed questionnaire. Lameness in dairy cattle was assessed subjectively using a locomotion scoring system. Both bivariate and binary logistic regression models were employed for risk assessment, while principal components analysis (PCA) was conducted to address the high dimensionality of the data and capture the underlying structure of the explanatory variables.ResultsThe overall lameness prevalence of 21.9% in commercial dairy farms and 4.6% in smallholder dairy farms. Various factors such as age, body weight, parity, body condition score (BCS), floor type, hock and knee injuries, animal hygiene, provision of hoof trimming, and the presence of hoof lesions were found to be significantly associated with lameness. Binary logistic regression analysis indicated that the odds of lameness in crossbred cows increased with higher parity, decreased BCS, presence of hard flooring, poor animal hygiene, and the existence of hoof lesions. These factors were identified as potential risk factors for lameness in dairy cows. Principal component analysis unveiled five components explaining 71.32% of the total variance in commercial farms and 61.21% in smallholder dairy farms. The extracted components demonstrated higher loadings of housing and management factors (such as hoof trimming and provision of footbath) and animal-level factors (including parity, age, and BCS) in relation to lameness in dairy cows.ConclusionsThe findings suggest that principal component analysis effectively reduces the dimensionality of risk factors. Addressing these identified risk factors for lameness is crucial for the strategic management of lameness in dairy cows. Future research in India should investigate the effectiveness of management interventions targeted at the identified risk factors in preventing lameness in dairy cattle across diverse environments.

A longitudinal study of tick infestations and management practices in young stock smallholder dairy cattle in the Tanga region, Tanzania

A longitudinal study involving cohorts of young stock animals (<3 years old) kept on smallholder dairy farms in the Tanga region, Tanzania, was conducted to identify and quantify tick infestations and describe on-farm tick management practices. A total of 549 young stock were followed for 23 months, and 3127 grazing and acaricide treatment observations were obtained. Tick counts were low in the present study, and while more than 30% of animals had a tick on one occasion, most animals had no ticks at most examinations. The most commonly encountered spp. were R. appendiculatus, Boophilus spp., A. variegatum and R. evertsi. Most animals were zero-grazed, a management system that significantly limits animal exposure to ticks; however, grazed calves were more than three times more likely to carry R. appendiclatus and Boophilus spp. ticks than zero-grazed calves were (OR [odds ratio] = 4.4, P < 0.001; 3.6, P < 0.001). There were no significant differences among sampling rounds in the numbers of animals carrying R. appendiculatus ticks (likelihood ratio test P = 0.520). Hand spraying was the common method used, acaricides that require on farm dilution were most commonly used, and most farmers used this method at concentrations considerably less than those recommended by the manufacturer, most likely due to poor understanding, high cost (tempting them to over dilute) and weak extension/veterinary services. Variation in acaricide treatment frequency was not associated with variations in tick attachment, suggesting that most farms were under a strong acaricide regime or at irregular intervals or with tick-building resistance. Our findings suggest that geographic variations in vector densities might partly influence the extent of infection caused by tick-borne pathogens. The applicability of this study to large and extensive cattle production systems is recommended to widen the scope of tick management practices while generating additional data that will inform national tick and tick-borne disease control policy reform in Tanzania.

Nutrient imbalances of smallholder dairy farming systems in Indonesia: The relevance of manure management

CONTEXTNitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) imbalances from dairy farming systems (DFSs) lead to environmental problems, such as eutrophication. OBJECTIVEThis study aimed to quantify nutrient deficits and losses from DFSs with different manure management systems (MMSs) at the farm level and at the levels of its sub-systems. METHODSWe compared NP balances of 30 farms with four different MMSs: applying manure directly on forage land, without treatment (ADL), selling or exporting manure (SEL), using manure for anaerobic digestion (ADI), and discharging manure (DIS). NP balances were calculated based on differences between in- and outflows. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONSResults showed that N balances at DFS averaged 222 kg N farm−1 yr−1 and did not differ between MMSs. Average P balances at DFS differed between MMSs; balances were highest for DIS (83 kg P farm−1 yr−1), and lowest for SEL (−25 kg P farm−1 yr−1). Soil P balances did not differ between MMSs and were mostly negative, except for four ADL farms. Annually, all dairy farms in Lembang region are estimated to cause a nutrient loss of ∼1061 tons of N and ∼ 290 tons of P, and extract 8 tons of P from soils. Overall, high NP imbalances are caused by discharging manure into the environment. SIGNIFICANCETo reduce imbalances, collection and on-farm use of manure must be improved, and excess manure needs to be sold to crop farms. The carrying capacity for high-input high-output dairy farming is determined by the capacity of arable farms to apply the manure surpluses.

Evaluation of the environmental impacts of the smallholder milk-production system in Central Mexico.

In order to analyze the environmental performance of Smallholder Dairy Farms (SHDFs) located in the State of Mexico, a Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) was carried out using two methodological approaches (A1 and A2) to estimate and interpret environmental impacts. A1 consisted in obtaining the average inputs and outputs of 15 SHDFs to generate a representative farm life cycle inventory, while A2 included an individual environmental impact analysis per SHDF to obtain average values of the contributions per analyzed midpoint impact category. The feed production subsystem generated the highest contributions to environmental impacts per liter of raw milk produced. Estimated emissions based on A2 approach, resulted in higher environmental impacts compared to results obtained with A1. The estimated values for the midpoint impact categories obtained with A2: Climate change, Fossil depletion, Terrestrial acidification, and Agricultural land occupation, were 8.73%, 30.77%, 100%, and 20.49% higher compared to A1 approach, respectively. While A2 provides more accurate results, it requires more time and resources compared to the integration of a panel of representative dairy farms.

Risk coping strategies of typical and entrepreneurial smallholder dairy farmers in Ethiopia

Risk coping strategies of typical and entrepreneurial smallholder dairy farmers in Ethiopia

Antibiogram of Escherichia coli Isolated from Dairy Cattle and in-Contact Humans in Selected Areas of Central Ethiopia.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global threat to public and animal health. Escherichia coli is considered an indicator organism for monitoring AMR among gram-negative Enterobacteriaceae in humans and animals. The current study aims to assess the antibiogram profile of E. coli isolated from dairy cattle and in-contact humans in central Ethiopia and to identify risk factors associated with multidrug resistance (MDR). A cross-sectional study was conducted in which 58 farms were recruited from selected districts of central Ethiopia. E. coli was isolated using standard bacteriological techniques. A total of 200 representative isolates (140 from cattle and 60 from humans in contact) were randomly selected and tested for susceptibility to a panel of 13 antimicrobials using the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion assay. The highest rate of resistance was observed for sulfamethoxazole+trimethoprim (58.6%, 82/140) and amoxicillin+clavulanic acid (70.0%, 42/60) among E. coli isolates from cattle and hmans, respectively. In contrast, resistance rates in isolates from in contact humans with the cattle were 30%, 33.3%, and 66.7%, respectively. Resistance to tetracycline (p=0.02), streptomycin (p=0.03), and sulfamethoxazole+trimethoprim (p=0.007) was significantly high in E. coli isolated from cattle on commercial dairy farms than in those isolated from cattle on smallholder farms. There was no significant difference (p>0.05) in the rate of resistance between E. coli isolated from in contact humans with smallholder and commercial dairy farms. Antimicrobial use for treatment purpose (p=0.04) and non-compliance with the drug withdrawal period (p=0.03) were significantly associated with the farm-level occurrence of MDR. A high rate of resistance was detected in E. coli isolated from the feces of dairy cattle and in-contact humans. This necessitates an effective intervention through a one-health approach and further molecular studies are required to establish source attribution.

Determinants of microfinance credit uptake and the amount of credit by smallholder dairy cattle farmers in Maara sub-county, Tharaka Nithi County, Kenya

Microfinance institutions play a crucial role in enhancing the production and productivity of smallholder farmers by providing them with the necessary financial resources. However, the adoption and utilization of microfinance credit in the Maara sub-county fall short of their potential benefits. Despite various credit service providers, not all smallholder dairy cattle farmers in this region have been able to capitalize on these services. Several factors contribute to the low uptake of microfinance credit among smallholder dairy farmers, including inadequate financial literacy, absence of collateral, high transaction costs, and insufficient infrastructure. Acknowledging that these factors are dynamic and can vary across different regions is and essential. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the dynamics influencing microfinance credit adoption and utilization in the Maara sub-county is lacking. This study examined microfinance credit uptake from two angles: the factors affecting its adoption and the determinants of credit size once accessed. Recognizing the interdependence of these choices, the study employed the Heckman selection model. Results indicated that factors such as years of schooling, household size, organization membership, access to extension services, and collateral availability significantly (p < 0.01) influenced microfinance credit uptake. Furthermore, schooling years, household size, and daily milk production per cow emerged as the most impactful credit size determinants (p < 0.05). The study suggests that promoting organization membership among smallholder dairy cattle farmers could enhance access to microfinance credit facilities, thereby ensuring sustainable milk production. By addressing the identified factors, the Maara sub-county could unlock the potential of microfinance credit to benefit its agricultural sector.

Prevalence and analysis of risk factors of udder and teat health disorders in free-grazing and zero-grazing small holder dairy cows in south wollo, Ethiopia

Udder and teat health disorders (UTHDs) cause profound economic loss and have a major influence on dairy cows’ welfare and productivity. This study was carried out to identify the prevalence and risk factors of UTHDs and to investigate a potential association with clinical mastitis (CM). The prevalence of UTHDs in this study was 28.4%. The UTHDs identified were CM (15.1%), teat ulcer/cracks (7.6%), udder wound (7.3%), teat end lesions (3.1%), teat papilloma (2.6%), pendulous udder (2.3%), hyperthelia (1.6%), athelia (1.0%), udder abscess (1.0%), teat stenosis (0.8%), teat gangrene (0.8%) and udder impetigo (0.8%). A significantly higher prevalence of UTHDs was identified in Holstein-Friesian (HF) cross breeds (P < 0.001; OR = 0.134) than indigenous breeds; in cows between 4-5 years of age (P < 0.001; OR = 11.666) compared to > 7 years; in cows with good BCS (P = 0.007; OR = 0.263) than those with poor BCS and in milking (P < 0.001; OR = 4.682) and dry cows (P = 0.003; OR = 4.226) than pregnant cows. Prevalence did not differ significantly (P > 0.05) between the locations and management systems of herds. In addition, the occurrence of CM was associated with teat ulcer/cracks (P < 0.001; OR = 0.036), udder wound (P < 0.001; OR = 0.068); teat end lesions (P = 0.008; OR = 0.142); pendulous udder (P = 0.031; OR = 0.153) and udder impetigo (P = 0.040; OR = 0.058). A statistically insignificant difference was found in the prevalence of UTHDs between free-grazing and zero-grazing smallholder dairy herds. The study identifies teat ulcers/cracks, udder wounds, and teat end lesions as risk factors for CM.

Assessment of aflatoxins awareness in animal feeds and fresh milk among smallholder dairy farmers in Kondoa district, Dodoma Tanzania

The occurrence of aflatoxins in animal feeds and milk is a common problem that is affecting both livestock and human being leading to physiological disorders and cancer. Unfortunate, most livestock keepers are not aware of aflatoxins and their contamination in animal feeds, cause, effects, and control measures as most interventions on awareness creation have been involved with agricultural cereal crops. This study was conducted to assess awareness of aflatoxins among smallholder dairy farmers in Kondoa district to determine the effectiveness of an intervention to prevent aflatoxins. The study involved a survey using semi-structured questionnaires to 120 respondents purposively selected depending on having at least one dairy cattle in their herd. The results from this study indicated that the majority of respondents (88.3%) heard of aflatoxins through either village meetings, seminars, radio, television or from friends. About seventy eight (78.7%) of all respondents understand that aflatoxins can potentially contaminate animal feeds while 68.2% understand that aflatoxins can harm both animal health and human and results in liver cancer. Likewise, 63.3% of all respondents understand the possible transmission of aflatoxins to milk. On the other hand, about 55% of participants in this study understand factors and control measures for aflatoxins in animal feeds and milk. It is necessary to improve awareness and public training campaigns to prevent aflatoxins in the food system in many other regions in Tanzania.

Dairy village: the role of veterinary services in unlocking dairy industry potential through assisted reproductive technologies

The “Dairy Village” concept was designed to overcome the constraints of estrus synchronization and AI particularly associated with eletion of the breeding animals and subsequent management of estrous cows in Ethiopia. All necessary inputs, including sexed semen, were acquired before the fieldwork. The knowledge and skill gaps were identified and addressed with the active involvement of veterinarians and AI technicians who underwent specialized training to ensure proper physical and gynecological examinations during the selection of cows and heifers. Accordingly, a refresher training was delivered on topics of reproductive anatomy and physiology, assessment of ovarian status, semen handling, and insemination at the optimal time to establish pregnancy. Besides, awareness creation seminars were held every year on topics of benefits of reproductive technologies and management of breeding cows to 99 smallholder dairy farmers. Only 578 cows/heifers were found fit for breeding out of the 1262 cows/heifers that were brought for evaluation; including 81 animals that spontaneously showed estrus. A total of 497 cows/heifers were synchronized using a single IM injection of Lutalyse. Animals responding to the treatment (404 cow/heifers) and those spontaneously in estrus (81cows/ heifers) were inseminated using sex- sorted HF semen 18-24hrs into the standing estrus. Pregnancy rate was 80% (388/485) and 287 calves were born (96% female). Results of this project indicate that rigorous gynecological examination during the selection of cows prior to estrus synchronization and judicious application of hormonal treatments can yield improve the success of ES/AI projects under field conditions. Furthermore, the dairy village approach to enhanced milk production through efficient use of sex-sorted semen has generated replacement heifers from superior breed that will substantially improve the livelihoods of village farmers.

Understanding dis-adoption of technologies by smallholder dairy farmers in Indonesia

Abstract Farmer cooperatives represent a vertical coordination strategy aimed at reducing transaction costs and facilitating the adoption of technologies among farmers. In their roles, cooperatives undertake internal coordination of activities which may include enforcement measures, provision of quality inputs, internal control, and negotiation of favourable terms of exchange with buyers. However, limited attention has been given to understanding how cooperatives’ performance in the internal coordination of activities either promotes or hinders the continued adoption of agricultural technologies among cooperative members. We conducted a case study of the dairy sector in West Java, Indonesia, and utilised a mixed-method approach combining insight from dairy cooperative board members and dairy farming households. Our results suggest that the dis-adoption of dairy technologies is rooted in weak or non-existent monitoring and enforcement mechanisms to ensure input and output quality, the absence of price incentives, and inadequate provision of extension services. Furthermore, the lack of tight monitoring and control mechanisms reduces the cooperatives’ bargaining power with input providers and milk buyers. Unless these issues within the cooperatives are addressed, continued adoption of recommended dairy farming practices by smallholder farmers will not be sustained.

Molecular identification, risk factor assessment, and phylogenetic analysis of tick-borne pathogens in symptomatic and asymptomatic cattle from South-Eastern Iran.

Tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) represent a substantial threat to cattle globally, exerting adverse impacts on production, health, and economic viability. This study delves into the prevalence and implications of TTBPs in cattle sourced from resource-limited smallholder livestock farms situated in southeastern Iran, proximate to Afghanistan and Pakistan. Blood and tick specimens were systematically collected from a cohort of 230 cattle, comprising 150 asymptomatic and 80 symptomatic individuals. Genomic DNA isolated from blood samples underwent rigorous examination for the presence of key TBPs, including Anaplasma marginale, A. phagocytophilum, A. bovis, A. centrale, Babesia bigemina, and Theileria annulata, utilizing multiple genetic markers. Nucleotide sequence analysis facilitated the reconstruction of phylogenetic relationships. The study also evaluated various potential risk factors, such as clinical status, gender, age, breed, tick infestation, and management practices, to elucidate their associations with TTBPs. Among the cattle cohort, a staggering 87.8% (202/230) tested positive for at least one pathogen. Prevalence statistics encompassed A. marginale (72.2%), T. annulata (68.3%), A. phagocytophilum/A. platys-like complex (66.1%), A. centrale (16.7%), B. bigemina (10.0%), and A. bovis (6.1%). Remarkably, mixed infections involving two, three, and four pathogens were detected in 23%, 52.1%, and 2.2% of animals, respectively. Notably, all asymptomatic cattle were positive for at least one TBP. Tick infestation was observed in 62.2% (143/230) of cattle, predominantly caused by Hyalomma anatolicum (82.5%), Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) annulatus (13.1%), and R. sanguineus sensu lato (4.4%). Risk factors linked to TBPs encompassed tick infestation, older age, and crossbred animals. Clinical presentations among symptomatic cattle encompassed fever, anemia, weight loss, anorexia, jaundice, and enlarged superficial lymph nodes. This study underscores the pivotal role of asymptomatic carriers in the propagation of TTBPs within endemic regions. Furthermore, it emphasizes the potential for the implementation of molecular diagnostics to unmask subclinical infections, thereby affording the opportunity for targeted interventions aimed at ameliorating the burden of TTBPs in resource-constrained smallholder dairy farms.

Occurrence of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in Bovine Bulk Milk and Farm Workers in Smallholder Dairy Farming Systems in Northwestern Ethiopia.

Staphylococcus aureus is a common pathogen responsible for causing various human and animal infections and is well known for its ability to develop resistance to multiple antibiotics. This study aimed to evaluate the occurrence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in bulk milk and dairy farms in northwestern Ethiopia and to determine their phenotypic and genotypic antimicrobial susceptibility patterns. We collected 50 bulk milk samples from 50 dairy farms and 50 hand swabs from dairy milkers. The cefoxitin disk diffusion test and PCR-based assays were used to identify MRSA isolates. In addition, cefoxitin-resistant isolates were tested for susceptibility to other antibiotics using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method. The results showed that MRSA was detected in 8 samples: 6 from bulk milk samples (12%) and 2 from hand swabs (4%). All MRSA isolates exhibited a high resistance rate to penicillin (100%), followed by tetracycline (75%), ciprofloxacin (25%), chloramphenicol (25%), erythromycin (25%), gentamycin (12.5%), and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (12.5%). Moreover, 72% of the isolates showed resistance to three or more antibiotic classes and were classified as multidrug-resistant. This study identified methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and multidrug-resistant MRSA in bulk milk and dairy farms in northwestern Ethiopia. These findings highlight the potential risk of transmission of these antibiotic-resistant bacteria to humans and the need for improved antibiotic stewardship in the dairy sector using the One Health approach.

Understanding Constraints and Enablers of Climate Risk Management Strategies: Evidence from Smallholder Dairy Farmers in Regional South India

The adoption of effective coping strategies is crucial for successful adaptation to the impacts of climate change in the dairy sector. However, little attention has been paid to understanding the perceived constraints and motivations toward such strategies. A survey was conducted among 104 dairy farmers from three semi-arid regions of South India. The aim of the survey was to explore the dairy farmers’ perception of climate risk, how it impacts their dairy farming system, the coping strategies they employ, and the barriers they face when implementing these strategies. The survey also investigated the factors that facilitate the adoption of adaptation measures. The results indicate dairy farmers in the region perceive drought, pests and diseases, and high temperatures as the major risks associated with climate change, which has resulted in decreased dairy income, animal health problems, reduced fertility, and food intake problems for their cattle. In response to climate variability, dairy farmers have adopted various coping strategies. The most important strategies include buying livestock insurance, keeping low debt obligations, and growing drought-tolerant grass varieties. However, most farmers face significant constraints in adopting these and other strategies including a lack of climate forecast data, the high cost of adaptation activities, and weak institutional support. On the other hand, the key enabling factors that support the adoption of these strategies include milk production security, suitable feed growing conditions, and family interest. Most importantly, the study found that certain factors such as age, education, number of earning family members, annual milk production, monthly cattle expenses, and landholdings significantly influenced dairy farmers’ strategies for adapting to climate change. The study recommends that providing timely climate forecasts, implementing improved policies such as vaccination and cattle health services, and establishing strong institutional support systems can help dairy farmers become more resilient to climate change and protect their livelihoods.

Dairy input agri-entrepreneurs’ practices and their effect on inputs market participation by smallholder farmers in Tanzania

Dairy productivity per cow remains lower than the production ability amid increasing population. Among major reasons for this is the lower uptake of improved dairy inputs by smallholder dairy farmers. We characterized dairy input providers' business practices using Latent class analysis (LCA) and determined the effect of these business practices on the uptake of inputs by smallholder dairy farmers in Tanga and Kilimanjaro regions using OLS. From LCA, Bayesian Information Criteria (BIC) revealed a 3-class model as the most parsimonious and best fit (2153.071). The latent class (LC) membership of the input/service entrepreneurs for classes I, II, and III was 37.6% (35), 9.7% (9), and 52.7% (49), respectively. Using item response probabilities, we classified class I, II and III as ‘High business activities and business promotional practices’, ‘Low business activities, medium business promotional activities’, and ‘Medium business activities, Low business promotional activities’. Extension services provision was significant across all the classes with probability values greater than 0.5. The OLS model revealed that LC I and II were significant at 1% while LC III was significant at 5%. Education level and Moshi Rural District were negatively significant. Technical training of input entrepreneurs and capacity building on bundling relevant information alongside inputs is necessary for knowledge sharing with farmers. Networking, collaborations, and alliances among input/service entrepreneurs and between entrepreneurs and dairy farmers should be fostered for adequacy in technical information sharing and connecting farmers to other input suppliers. There is need for entrepreneurs to invest in rural areas and improve information and input access by the farmers. The study explored private dairy entrepreneurs as alternative extension services providers as a business strategy to enhance uptake of improved inputs by smallholder farmers. This study is relevant in making workable decisions towards implementing programmes geared towards increasing the improved input uptake in developing countries.

Out of the woods: social capital and smallholder dairy farmers' access to state-owned agroforestry lands in West Java, Indonesia

Out of the woods: social capital and smallholder dairy farmers' access to state-owned agroforestry lands in West Java, Indonesia