Smallholder Coffee Farmers Research Articles

Assessment of Soil Chemical Properties and Coffee Leaf Analysis in Goma Woreda of Oromia Region

Information on soil test and plant analysis is essential for sustainable soil fertility management and crop production. Conversely, this is lacking for smallholder coffee farms in Gomma district, Southwestern Ethiopia. Thus, the objectives of this study were to assess and determine the nutritional status of the soil–plant relation from coffee growing farms in Gomma district. Accordingly, soil samples, coffee leaves and field history were collected from 10 coffee farms during pinhead phase. Soil samples collected from 0-30 cm depth were prepared and analyzed in the laboratory following standard procedures. For data analysis, descriptive statistics was used. Results showed that the soil pH ranged from strongly to moderately acidic (pH 4.72–5.75) and low to medium in their organic matter (2.68–4.72%) content. Total N content was low in 20% of the samples, while 100% of the soil samples found to be deficient in P content. Exchangeable Ca ranged from low to high, exchangeable Mg in all soil samples was medium, while exchangeable K ranged medium to very high. Nevertheless, K to Mg ratio varied from 0.64:1 to 2.62:1, indicating Mg induced K deficiency in 10%. The plant tissue analysis depicted that 50, 60 and 50% low in N, P and K, respectively, while high in Ca and Mg concentrations. Significant and positive correlations of soil phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium with tissue concentration were existed. For sound conclusion, soil test and crop response calibration, appropriate soil, N, P, K, organic fertilizers and lime are recommended for future work.

Lessons from Smallholder Coffee Farms in Guatemala

Lessons from Smallholder Coffee Farms in Guatemala

Efectos del cambio climático en fincas cafetaleras: una revisión bibliográfica con énfasis en Perú

Los efectos del cambio climático están generando inestabilidad en la agricultura. En este sentido el propósito de este artículo de revisión bibliográfica es dar a conocer los efectos que está causando el cambio climático en fincas cafetaleras de pequeños agricultores de Perú, así como las alternativas de solución. Se concluye que el cambio climático está afectando negativamente a los cultivos de café, a través de la introducción de enfermedades tales como la roya en el año 2013 y 2014 disminuyo la producción de café en 109.500 toneladas (t), el afecto incidió a la variedad de café typica. En consecuencia, las familias han tenido que adaptarse a convivir con la roya, con una tendencia de implementar nuevas parcelas de café, sembradas por encima de los (1500 nsnm). Así mismo el precio del café es inestable, para el año 2013-2014 se mantuvo S/ 6.33 a S/ 4.89 por kg. Frente a las dificultades que hubo, el estado peruano ha incentivado a la siembra de café (catimor) desde el 2014 hasta el año 2018, se incrementó en 79.755 hectáreas de cultivo.

Good Agriculture Practice (GAP) of arabica coffee (Coffea arabica L.): Implementation on the smallholder estate in Enrekang Regency

This study aims to evaluate and provide an overview of farmers’ knowledge and understanding on the Good Agriculture Practice (GAP) of Arabica coffee cultivation and its implementation level on the smallholder estate in Enrekang Regency. The research was conducted in three districts of coffee plantation centre from December 2017 to January 2018. The research was carried out in the form of surveys including interviews, observations, and literature studies. A total of 30 respondents were selected using a purposive sampling method in addition to several key respondents from stakeholders and experts. Criteria for the selection was based on the involvement of the farmers in a GAP field schools or not. A proportional ratio of farmers involved in program and not involved were set for the survey. Data were analysed descriptively and quantitatively using comparative analysis with SPSS Version 16 to determine the difference in production of two groups of farmers. The results show that the overall implementation level of GAP by the smallholder farmers of Arabica coffee in Enrekang Regency is 54%. Highest level of GAP implementation was on post-harvest aspect (77%), followed by the harvest aspect (61%). The smallholder coffee farmers had the lowest GAP level on in cultivation aspect of 24%. Farmers that did not implement the GAP had a significantly lower production compared to the farmers who have participated in GAP field schools.

Assessing smallholder farmers’ motivation to adopt agroforestry using a multi-group structural equation modeling approach

This study applied the multi-group structural equation modeling technique to identify differences in farmer motivations to adopting agroforestry practices in the Mt. Elgon region of Uganda. Data were collected from interviews with 400 smallholder coffee farmers belonging to four categories which included: (1) those actively participating in an Australian-funded trees for food security (T4FS) project from phase 1 (2014); (2) farmers neighbouring those actively participating in the T4FS project; (3) farmers actively participating in the T4FS project from phase 2 (2017) and; (4) farmers living distant and unaware of the T4FS project. We used the theory of planned behaviour framework to assess the adoption behaviour of these farmer categories resulting from project interventions. About 40% of the variation in farmer motivation to integrate trees in their coffee plantations was explained by the significant variables of ‘attitude’ and ‘perceived behavioural control’ among farmers actively participating in the T4FS project from phase 1. However, the neighbors of participating farmers and farmers who had never interacted with the project were only motivated by ‘attitude’ and ‘social norms’ respectively. Farmer motivation resulting from social pressure was strongest among farmers who had never interacted with the project, and in the absence of project interventions, rely on existing social structures to drive change in their community. Farmers’ perceived behavioural control to overcome tree planting barriers and their attitude to the economic benefits of shaded coffee were significantly different among the four farmer categories (p < 0.05). The findings indicate that psychological factors are key drivers to the farmers’ internal decision-making process in agroforestry technology adoption and can be context-specific. The adoption behaviour of smallholder farmers is mainly shaped by existing community social norms and beliefs that tend to promote knowledge exchange, as opposed to the conventional knowledge transfer extension approaches. Norms are therefore an inherent part of social systems and can create distinct farming practices, habits and standards within a social group. Researchers and extension agents can act upon these identified positive attitudes, norms and perceived behavioural controls to guarantee adoption and sustainability of agricultural technologies.

Climate Change Adaptation, Food Security, and Attitudes toward Risk among Smallholder Coffee Farmers in Nicaragua

Farmers’ livelihoods are uniquely vulnerable to climate change, and taking adaptive measures to changing environmental conditions constitutes one of the most important pathways for protecting them. Their willingness and capacity to adopt improved practices and technologies, their cognitive and behavioural preferences, and the institutional response mechanisms will go a long way in determining their success in their adaptation to climate change. This study presents results of an analysis of the vulnerabilities of smallholder coffee producers in Nicaragua to climate change. I use descriptive analyses and experimental risk games to evaluate the preferences and attitudes of coffee producers in the context of their adaptation to climate change. I show that food insecure households are more risk-averse than food-secure households and that much work is needed in the sector to ensure equity and improve institutional capacity. For households in chronic poverty, conventional risk management strategies simply may not be enough. Institutional arrangements must be put in place to enable coffee-growing households to engage in practices that result in improved capacity for climate change adaptation.

Community Initiatives and Local Networks among K’ho Cil Smallholder Coffee Farmers in the Central Highlands of Vietnam: A Case Study

Over the last two decades, coffee growers in Vietnam have faced the same problems as farmers all over the world. Ethnographic research among the community of K’ho Cil coffee growers in Lam Dong Province from 2016 to 2018 documented local initiatives to deal with the problems through the establishment of a K’ho Coffee network, revitalization of traditional production patterns, local integration into the global coffee commodity chain and agritourism entrepreneurship. Conceptualizing the way local K’ho Coffee growers generated and implemented the initiatives, this paper argues that by utilizing their social network, local farmers revitalized their economic production. Negotiating a decent collective position in the world system of the coffee commodity chain offers them a chance to survive the influx of economic deregulation and avert the impacts of climate change.

Marketed Surplus of Coffee by Smallholder Farmers in Seka Chokorsa District, Jimma Zone, Ethiopia: Determinants Analysis

Coffee is mainly produced for market and is an important export cash crop in the study area. This study analyzed the determinants of sundried coffee marketed surplus by smallholder farmers in Seka chokorsa district of Jimma Zone. Both data sources and types, primary and secondary, qualitative and quantitative, were used to achieve the objective of the study under consideration. These data were collected from 124 smallholders coffee producers who were randomly selected in the study area using questionnaires and other stakeholders who directly or indirectly deal with coffee production and supply were interviewed. Multiple linear regression model was used to analyze the determinants of sundried coffee marketed surplus as all coffee producers were supplied coffee to the market and the assumptions of OLS were tested which indicated the absence of violations due to fitness of the model with data collected. The result of multiple regression model revealed that coffee farming experience, family size, land size, coffee market information and membership to the cooperatives affected marketed surplus of sundried coffee positively and significantly whereas sex of the household head and distance from the nearest market affected negatively and significantly. Therefore, policy needs to emphasize at encouraging women to increase their coffee supply and expanding the accessibility of market infrastructure to close the gap, and further, strengthening farmers cooperatives, increasing the production and productivity of coffee land, developing farmers experience through skills and knowledge, and facilitation of market and information access are highly recommended in order to increase coffee marketed surplus by smallholder coffee farmers in the area. Keywords: Determinants, Sundried Coffee, Marketed surplus, Multiple Linear Regression Model DOI: 10.7176/DCS/10-8-02 Publication date: August 31 st 2020

Determinants of smallholder farmers’ adaptation options to climate change in a coffee-based farming system of Southwest Ethiopia

ABSTRACT The direct and indirect impacts of climate change may jeopardize livelihoods of millions of poor coffee-growing farmers, unless the sector manages to deploy adequate adaptation measures. This study provides valuable insight into smallholder coffee farmers’ adaptation strategies to climate change impacts and factors determining their choices based on a survey of 240 smallholder farmers in Jimma zone, southwest Ethiopia. The assessment indicates that the most common adaptation measures used by the producers include adjustment of planting date, change of the crop type and variety, tree plantation, and mixed farming. Access to weather forecasts and formal extension services, level of education, age of the household head, farm size and income from coffee and agro-ecological setting affect the coffee growers’ decision to adapt to climate change. Enhancing smallholder coffee farmers’ adaptation to climate change requires further efforts from the government to improve farmers’ access to accurate and timely agro-meteorological forecasts, capacity building and technical support for income diversification through improved provision of agricultural extension services.

Effects of on-farm diversification strategies on smallholder coffee farmer food security and income sufficiency in Chiapas, Mexico

• Smallholder coffee farmers manage diversified livelihood portfolios. • Coffee remains the main livelihood activity. • Farmers that additionally produced honey and staple crops experienced fewer ‘thin’ months. • The coffee, honey and staple crops combination was associated with income sufficiency. • Context-specific information on diversification is needed to guide interventions.

Factors Affecting Entrepreneurial Capacity Building of Smallholder Coffee Farmers in East Java Province

The income of smallholder coffee farmers can be increased by optimizing the added value of the product through increased entrepreneurial capacity. Coffee farmers need to adopt innovations and new approaches that are more sustainable with organic farming systems. The purposes of this study are; (1) identifying differences in characteristics, support of government extension services, private extension agents, and environmental support for smallholder coffee farmers and (2) analyzing the effect of characteristics, government extension services, private extension agents, and environmental support on the entrepreneurial capacity of smallholder coffee farmers. This study was carried out at Arabica Coffee Center in Bondowoso Regency and Robusta Coffee Center in Malang Regency, East Java from August to October 2019. Data were collected through interviews with questionnaires in a total of 376 smallholder coffee farmers. Data were analyzed using descriptive (SPSS) and inferential statistics (structural equation model/SEM analysis using Smart PLS). The results of research showed that non formal education and roles of private extension agents were found to be low. Moreover, motivation, government extension support, environmental support, and entrepreneurial capacity of smallholder coffee farmers were categorized as moderate. Factors significantly influenced entrepreneurial capacity of coffee farmers included: characteristics of farmers, government extension support, roles of private extension agents, and environmental support. The role of government to strengthen private extension agents is possible through partnership between coffee farmers, government and exporter or private sectors.

Shocks and cherries: The production of vulnerability among smallholder coffee farmers in Jamaica

Abstract Coffee is a global commodity that supports the livelihoods of 100 million people worldwide, many of whom are smallholder farmers. While smallholder farmers are known to be vulnerable to social and environmental changes, the complex interactions that shape their vulnerability have not been adequately explored. This analysis identifies the determinants of that vulnerability in the Blue Mountains of Jamaica and discusses how these determinants interact and have evolved. We use mixed methods consisting of household surveys of 434 farmers, focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and archival research of coffee industry reports. We show that vulnerability is manifest in low coffee harvests that result from the interacting stressors of climate variability, plant diseases, and market conditions. The impacts of shocks and stressors are further aggravated by low resource endowments that influence the capacity to manage these persistent challenges as well as a political economy characterized by unequal market relations, national policies that promote a vulnerable coffee variety, and a retraction of public investments in smallholders. Using regression methods we show that among the farmer resources, the ability to invest in agricultural inputs and tools as well as the elevation of the farm are importantly associated with production outcomes. We argue that the context of these smallholder farmers produces a Gordian Vulnerability whereby the determinants interact, are changing in form, and appear intractable. Consequently, strategies to reduce vulnerability need to be complex and multifaceted which make them difficult to implement. We argue that reductions in vulnerability will only come about by investments in multiple strategies.

Factors A ffecting Farmer ’Autonomy and Sustainability of Smallholder Coffee Farming u sing SEM Lisrel

Coffee is an important commodity in international trade. However, coffee farming in Indonesia is mostly managed by smallholder farmers who still apply traditional technology. This study was aimed to: (1) analyze the level of institutional role, agribusiness capacity, autonomy of farmer, and sustainability of smallholder coffee farming; (2) analyze factors affecting autonomy of farmers and sustainability of smallholder coffee farming. This research was carried out in Bondowoso and Malang Regency, East Java, Indonesia through the approach of survey conducted on 376 coffee farmers of all smallholder farmings of Robusta and Arabica coffee. Samples were collected by multistage random sampling done in the two regencies. Survey method was used in this study. Data were collected during July-October 2019 using the method of questionnaire, interview, and observation. Data were analyzed by descriptive and inferential method through SEM Lisrel. Result of the study showed that institutional support was categorized as low, while agribusiness capacity, autonomy of farmers, sustainability were included in moderate category. Factors found to affect the level of farmer’ autonomyof farmers were the support of institutional role and agribusiness capacity of farmers. Factors directly affected the sustainability of smallholder coffee farming was autonomy of farmers, whereas the role of institution and agribusiness capacity of farmers were found to indirectly affect sustainability. To strengthen autonomy of coffee farmers towards the sustainability of smallholder coffee farming, agribusiness capacity building and strengthening is necessary. Therefore, all stakeholders (government, private institution, and community) will immediately design such program that involves the synergy of multi-institutions related to smallholder coffee farmers.

INCREASED PRODUCTION AND PRICE STABILITY: ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS TO THE POVERTY TRAP OF SMALL FARMERS

This article discusses the problem of coffee as an important commodity in trade and sources of foreign exchange as well as a source of income for coffee smallholders. Conditions as in the case of agriculture in general are that coffee production cannot be separated from the role of small farmers and in fact the dominant is still in the poverty line. This study aims to determine the factors that influence the income of coffee farmers in South Sulawesi Province by using a path analysis. In addition, this study also examines efforts in formulating programs aimed at increasing the income of smallholder coffee farmers. The results showed that the significant variables on the income of coffee farmers who were indicators of poverty were production variables, farm costs, number of productive trees, exchange rates, and quality of coffee produced by farmers. The main result in this study is that the exchange rate plays an important role in increasing farmers' incomes. In addition, increased production also contributes to increasing farmers' incomes. Therefore, to overcome the poverty of coffee farmers, a strategic program to increase production is needed, namely the expansion of coffee plants, the use of superior seeds, the development of post-harvest technology, improvement of quality and quantity of coffee, improvement of knowledge and skills, development of the marketing sector and optimization of the role of institutions.

Coffee, Migration and Climatic Changes: Challenging Adaptation Dichotomic Narratives in a Transborder Region

The narratives of migration as adaptation and in situ adaptation are well established in mainstream adaptation policy and are usually presented as independent and opposing trends of action. A common and fundamental element of such narratives is the depoliticized conception of both migration and adaptation. Using a trans-scalar approach, we address the migration–coffee–climate change nexus: first at a regional scale, at the conflictive border of Guatemala–Mexico, to show the contradiction between the current Central American migratory crisis and the narrative of migration as adaptation; second, at a local scale and from an ethnographic perspective, we focus on the process of in situ adaptation in shade-grown coffee plots of smallholder coffee farmers in the Tacaná Volcano cross-border region, between Chiapas and Guatemala. We argue that the dichotomy “in situ adaptation” versus “migration as adaptation” is not useful to capture the intertwined and political nature of both narratives, as illustrated in the case of the renovation of smallholders’ coffee plots in a context of climatic changes. We provide elements to contribute towards the repolitization of adaptation from an integral perspective.

Penerapan Teknologi Image Processing untuk Optimalisasi Petik Merah pada Kebun Kopi Rakyat.

Coffee has been cultivated as the secondary produce for decades in Girimarto, Wonogiri, however, the selective picking practice remain alient for local farmers. Selective picking is considered impractical due to time consumption and laborous work that farmers should carry out. The community service project designs and implements image recognition technology to help acquire coffee-cheery ripeness condition. Adopting a geolocation, the appropriate routing strategies, would enable farmers to selectively pick the red cherries in a systematic sequence. The image processing technology was applied by adopting Raspberry Pi microcomputer, IP camera &lt;em&gt;ReoLink&lt;/em&gt; RLC411WS, and OpenCV programming language. The transition to selective picking and the subsequent post-harvest technology would likely produce high-quality green bean coffee. It is expected that the income of smallholder coffee farmers will gradually be increasing.

The Sustainability of Rural Livelihoods and Ecology among Small-Holder Coffee Farmers in the Eastern Districts of Zimbabwe, 1980-2018

Abstract This paper examines the sustainability of rural livelihoods and ecology from small-scale coffee production in the Eastern Districts of Zimbabwe from 1980 to 2018. When Zimbabwe attained political independence in 1980, the government made deliberate efforts at encouraging smallholder commercial farming, particularly of coffee in the Eastern Districts of the country. Emphasis on smallholder coffee production was couched within the pitch of black empowerment designed to counter exploitative colonial policies that segregated against blacks. Smallholder commercial agriculture was regarded as the best conduit to improve rural livelihoods and integrate rural economies in the mainstream economic grid, and also to promote environmental protection. Despite efforts invested in the development of smallholder coffee production, livelihoods and ecological sustainability based on the coffee business were elusive and, over time, the sector has failed. A number of factors explain this, including vacillating government policy, organisational challenges, the commodity problem and chronic dependency on donor funding. These developments attract a critical scholarly discourse to analyse livelihoods and ecological sustainability in the coffee business.

Mulching effects on soil nutrient levels and yield in coffee farming systems in Rwanda

AbstractDifferent combinations of organic mulch were applied in smallholder coffee farming systems to assess their effects on soil nutrient contents and coffee yield at three sites in different agro‐ecological zones in Rwanda. Mulching systems consisted of Cymbopogon spp. (T1), Panicum spp. (T2), Cymbopogon spp. and Panicum spp. (T3), Eucalyptus spp. and Cymbopogon spp. (T4), mixed residues (T5) and un‐mulched coffee used as control (T6). Mulch had significant and specific effects at each site (p &lt; 0.001). T3 reduced soil pH value and exchangeable acidity at Kibirizi, while at Karongi and Ruli, these effects were observed with T4 and T5. T4 and T5 significantly increased the content of soil carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg). The amount of nutrients released was regulated by the amount and type of mulch applied, the agro‐ecological conditions and the soil properties at each site. The increased soil nutrient levels led to improved soil fertility conditions and increased coffee yields. The coffee yields were significantly increased with T1 at Karongi (p &lt; 0.05) by up to 1.9 t ha−1. T2 and T3 had significantly higher yields at Kibirizi. Yields at Kibirizi were 48% lower compared to yields at Karongi; at this site, T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 increased yields by 57%, 26%, 31%, 20% and 28%, respectively, when compared to the no mulching treatment (T6). However, coffee yields over 1.9 t ha−1 can only be obtained with additional applications of inorganic fertilizer at different rates depending on the agro‐ecological zone and soil type.

How Effective is Multiple Certification in Improving the Economic Conditions of Smallholder Farmers? Evidence from an Impact Evaluation in Colombia’s Coffee Belt

Voluntary sustainability standards (VSS) in the coffee sector have become a popular tool to improve the livelihoods of smallholder coffee farmers. As third-party and company-led VSS have proliferated, an increasing number of producer groups are turning toward multiple certification to diversify their export channels. Yet, each certification requires added efforts and expenses, both at the farm and the organisational level. Hence, it is important to evaluate the additionality of multiple certification in bringing benefits to smallholders’ farm economy. This study addresses this research gap using a sample of over 600 coffee farmers from two Fairtrade-certified cooperatives in Colombia’s coffee belt to assess the additional economic impact of Starbucks C.A.F.E. Practices, Nespresso AAA, 4C, and the combination of Rainforest Alliance/Nespresso AAA certification. In examining coffee gross profit and household income, we find limited gains from the addition of industry and company-led standards to the Fairtrade certification. Evaluating pathways to improved economic performance, gross profit improvements appear most likely if higher average prices are combined with lower production costs. Finally, we show that the majority of farmers are unable to break even, irrespective of their certification status. This alarming result illustrates the need for further intervention in the coffee value chain.

Toward Sustainability or Efficiency: The Case of Smallholder Coffee Farmers in Vietnam

This study attempts to uncover the truth behind an increasing number of smallholder farmers participating in sustainable coffee farming in Vietnam. Using stochastic frontier and cost-benefit analysis, a sample of 316 smallholder farmers in Dak Lak was chosen to analyze the economic impacts of sustainable and conventional coffee farming on farmers’ welfare. In addition, we conducted field observation and key informant interviews to describe several farming practices. The results highlight the fact that farmers’ decisions to participate in sustainable coffee farming are mainly driven by economic benefits. Sustainable farming is more cost-effective and profitable than conventional farming, despite the insignificant difference in production efficiency. Improvement of education, farming knowledge, and collective actions could mitigate negative effects of small-scale production for sustainable coffee farmers. Pesticide management, shade coffee encouragement, and reduction of excessive fertilization, over-irrigation, and unproductive coffee varieties are recommended for sustainable development of the sector.