Small Wood Research Articles

Incidence and antimicrobial susceptibility of Salmonella, Listeria, and Campylobacter spp. in raw “souvlaki” marketed in Thessaloniki (Northern Greece)

Souvlaki is a popular Greek meat product consisting of small chunks or cubes of pork threaded on a small wooden or metal skewer. In the present study, 105 samples of raw pork souvlaki obtained from retail shops in Thessaloniki (Northern Greece) were screened for the incidence of Salmonella, Listeria, and Campylobacter and their susceptibility to various antimicrobial agents; serotyping of the isolates was also performed. Of the samples tested, 1.9% were positive for Salmonella and yielded 3 serovars (S. SaintPaul, S. Fyris and S. Typhimurium); 31.4% proved positive for Listeria spp. with 6.7% yielding L. monocytogenes isolates belonged to molecular serogroups 2 (serotypes 1/2c and 3c) and 4 ( serotypes 4b, 4d, and 4e). Campylobacter spp. were not detected in any of the samples tested. The antimicrobial susceptibility to various antimicrobial agents of 11 Salmonella strains and 7 L. monocytogenes strains was also determined by disc diffusion method. Salmonella spp. were susceptible to a panel of 12 antibiotics but displayed intermediate resistance to tetracycline. L. monocytogenes isolates were resistant to nalidixic acid and ceftriaxone, partly resistant to clindamycin and cefotaxime, but sensitive to all antibiotics commonly used in veterinary and human listeriosis. Our findings indicate that souvlaki could be a potential vehicle of food borne infections due to strains of L. monocytogenes and Salmonella spp. in the case of inadequate thermal processing. In addition, good hygienic practices must be applied to avoid cross-contamination during preparation or handling of the product.

Highly controlled, reproducible measurements of aerosol emissions from combustion of a common African biofuel source

Abstract. Particulate emissions from biomass burning can both alter the atmosphere's radiative balance and cause significant harm to human health. However, due to the large effect on emissions caused by even small alterations to the way in which a fuel burns, it is difficult to study particulate production of biomass combustion mechanistically and in a repeatable manner. In order to address this gap, in this study, small wood samples sourced from Côte D'Ivoire in West Africa were burned in a highly controlled laboratory environment. The shape and mass of samples, available airflow and surrounding thermal environment were carefully regulated. Organic aerosol and refractory black carbon emissions were measured in real time using an Aerosol Mass Spectrometer and a Single Particle Soot Photometer, respectively. This methodology produced remarkably repeatable results, allowing aerosol emissions to be mapped directly onto different phases of combustion. Emissions from pyrolysis were visible as a distinct phase before flaming was established. After flaming combustion was initiated, a black-carbon-dominant flame was observed during which very little organic aerosol was produced, followed by a period that was dominated by organic-carbon-producing smouldering combustion, despite the presence of residual flaming. During pyrolysis and smouldering, the two phases producing organic aerosol, distinct mass spectral signatures that correspond to previously reported variations in biofuel emissions measured in the atmosphere are found. Organic aerosol emission factors averaged over an entire combustion event were found to be representative of the time spent in the pyrolysis and smouldering phases, rather than reflecting a coupling between emissions and the mass loss of the sample. Further exploration of aerosol yields from similarly carefully controlled fires and a careful comparison with data from macroscopic fires and real-world emissions will help to deliver greater constraints on the variability of particulate emissions in atmospheric systems.

Oxidative pyrolysis of mallee wood biomass, cellulose and lignin

The oxidative pyrolysis of mallee wood, cellulose and lignin was performed and the bio-oil products were analysed to understand how the externally added oxygen react with the pyrolysis products. Both wood cylinders of diameter 8 mm and fine particles (90–300 μm) were pyrolysed in this study to understand the combined effects of biomass particle size and the presence of oxygen. The results revealed that, at a low oxygen concentration, the gas-phase oxidation of volatiles would improve the yields of levoglucosan and syringaldehyde, as well as unsaturated hydroxyl ketones/aldehydes for small wood particles through the oxygen-induced radical reactions. Although oxygen could facilitate the production of some compounds in bio-oil through the gas-phase reactions, it did lead to decreases in the heavy bio-oil yield due to the over-oxidation of some pyrolysis products (e. g. aromatics, lactones, unconjugated alkyl aldehydes/esters and carboxylic acids). The effects of oxygen on the pyrolysis of wood cylinders were more complicated than mallee wood particles due to the secondary reactions of volatiles and the reactions involving the pyrolysing particle surface. The interactions between the polysaccharide-derived and lignin-derived products in gas phase might affect the oxidation of volatiles, changing the formation of pyrolytic products (e.g. levoglucosan and syringaldehyde).

Evaluating Safety Climate Impact on Safety Behaviour of the Worker in Small and Medium Entreprises (SMEs) Wood Furniture in Bandengan Village, Jepara

Small and Medium-sized wood furniture in Jepara is able to create jobs and employ about 40-50 per cent of the 700,000 productive lives in Jepara. However, the results of the preliminary study show that 29 out of 30 people had experienced work accidents that caused injuries, such as: tear wounds, hammered hands, chiseled hands, sanded hands by machines. There are also occupational diseases such as breathless, eye irritation, skin irritation due to sawdust of production process, as well as musculoskeletal disease. This study aims at evaluating the influence of safety climate to safe work behavior. Data is collected using Safety Climate Questionnaire (SCQ) including 6 variables (Communication & Support, Adequacy of Procedures, Work Pressure, Personal Protective Equipment, Relationships & Safety Rule). There are 110 respondents (represent small-sized enterprise worker) and 210 respondents (represent medium-sized enterprises worker). This study also differs the small and medium sized-enterprises as the independent variable. The descriptive test results show that every variable of safety climate and safety behavior in medium Enterprises has a mean value greater than in small business. The six factors in the safety climate together have a significant influence on safety behavior in small and medium enterprises.

Investigate the Most Suitable Glue Type for Finger-Joints Production in Sri Lanka

Finger joint is sustainable, eco-friendly and economically valuable concept for furniture industry. It ensures the sustainable utilization of small wood cut pieces which removed as waste. Finger joints are described as interlocking end joint formed by machining a number of similar tapered symmetrical fingers in the ends of timber members using a finger joint cutter and then bonded together. Finger- jointed timber production plays a vital role in furniture industry in the world. However, issues related with the strength of the joints, fixing time, timber species and glue types etc, are still not fully investigated in Sri Lanka. This research evaluated the effects of commonly available glue types on the tensile strength of finger joint. The wood species studied were Jack, Kumbuk, Mahogany, Pine, and Teak. Mostly used Polyvinyl acetate three glue types were used for this study. The response variables measured for the tension tests. Data were gathered using Universal Testing Machine. One way ANOVA was used per each timber species to analyze the data. It was found that the highest tensile strength was recorded in SWR glue type.

Late Pleistocene Pollen and Plant Macrofossils from a Buried Wetland Deposit in the Platte River Valley, South-Central Nebraska

We present a pollen and plant macrofossil record from a 47-cm-thick deposit that dates from approximately 23,400 to 22,600 cal yr BP. The site is in the Platte River valley near Kearney, Nebraska. The organic-rich deposit is buried by 6 meters of Peoria loess and 3 meters of loess and loess-derived alluvium. Picea (spruce) needles and small wood fragments were the most visually prominent material in all macrofossil samples. We also identified Carex (sedge) and Pilea fontana (clearweed) seeds in all samples. We recorded 28 pollen types overall, mostly Picea and Cyperaceae (sedges). Minor amounts of Pinus (pine), Salix (willow), and Cupressaceae (juniper family) as well as non-arboreal pollen types, and spores such as Poaceae (<37 μm; grass), Aster type (composite family), Artemisia (composite family), and Polypodiaceae (ferns), are present. Clumps of immature pollen grains of Picea, Salix, Cyperaceae, and Poaceae (<37 μm) occur. Picea stomata were also recorded. We suggest, based on the pollen and macrofossil evidence, that a spruce forest with interspersed sedge wetlands existed in the Kearney area about 23,000 years ago. The Kearney site is one of the few last glacial maximum pollen and plant macrofossil localities reported from the central Great Plains.

PENINGKATAN KAPABILITAS EKS TENAGA KERJA INDONESIA (TKI) DESA PANDES DAN GONDANG KECAMATAN CEPIRING KABUPATEN KENDAL MELALUI SEKTOR INDUSTRI KECIL EKONOMI KREATIF TERBARUKAN (GREEN ECONOMIC SMEs)

The second year (2017) Science Program for the Region (IbW) is a priority in the program in the previous year that is in 2016. The program in the first year has been fruitful and by the team will be developed further. The application of science and technology in this program in the past year has resulted in both services and products in the form of, the formation of the group, the formation of the bamboo creative industrial sub-group, the creative economy of beverages and chips, small wood industry, and printing business. The entire sector is based on renewable raw materials (green raw material). These results have had a significant impact on increasing incomes, updating science and technology in the community, regional economic growth, togetherness in managing creative productive economy in the group region.To develop the Science and Technology program for the Region (IbW) hereinafter, this program aims to create more independence and welfare of the community in Pandes and Gondang villages, especially the ex-Indonesian Migrant Workers (TKI) through empowerment programs that have been established by synergizing the college and Government counseling Kendal district as set forth in the RPJMD, and secondly, providing coverage in overcoming unemployment over solutions to problems faced by district and community Governments that directly potentially affect income and welfare improvements. In order to achieve these objectives, through the IbW program in 2017 the method used is to recruit new members (now 18 SMEs) to the established groups in order to have broader effects, extension and empowerment for industrialization of bamboo products innovation, creative drinking industry innovation and chips, wood industry groups, and printing business groups. Achievement and Motivation Training (AMT) method was also conducted to increase entrepreneurial motivation. The activity is carried out continuously with a plan of three consecutive years, this is the second year.

Partitioning assimilatory nitrogen uptake in streams: an analysis of stable isotope tracer additions across continents

AbstractHeadwater streams remove, transform, and store inorganic nitrogen (N) delivered from surrounding watersheds, but excessive N inputs from human activity can saturate removal capacity. Most research has focused on quantifying N removal from the water column over short periods and in individual reaches, and these ecosystem‐scale measurements suggest that assimilatory N uptake accounts for most N removal. However, cross‐system comparisons addressing the relative role of particular biota responsible for incorporating inorganic N into biomass are lacking. Here we assess the importance of different primary uptake compartments on reach‐scale ammonium (NH4+‐N) uptake and storage across a wide range of streams varying in abundance of biota and local environmental factors. We analyzed data from 17 15N‐NH4+ tracer addition experiments globally, and found that assimilatory N uptake by autotrophic compartments (i.e., epilithic biofilm, filamentous algae, bryophytes/macrophytes) was higher but more variable than for heterotrophic microorganisms colonizing detrital organic matter (i.e., leaves, small wood, and fine particles). Autotrophic compartments played a disproportionate role in N uptake relative to their biomass, although uptake rates were similar when we rescaled heterotrophic assimilatory N uptake associated only with live microbial biomass. Assimilatory NH4+‐N uptake, either estimated as removal from the water column or from the sum uptake of all individual compartments, was four times higher in open‐ than in closed‐canopy streams. Using Bayesian Model Averaging, we found that canopy cover and gross primary production (GPP) controlled autotrophic assimilatory N uptake while ecosystem respiration (ER) was more important for the heterotrophic contribution. The ratio of autotrophic to heterotrophic N storage was positively correlated with metabolism (GPP: ER), which was also higher in open‐ than in closed‐canopy streams. Our analysis shows riparian canopy cover influences the relative abundance of different biotic uptake compartments and thus GPP:ER. As such, the simple categorical variable of canopy cover explained differences in assimilatory N uptake among streams at the reach scale, as well as the relative roles of autotrophs and heterotrophs in N storage. Finally, this synthesis links cumulative N uptake by stream biota to reach‐scale N demand and provides a mechanistic and predictive framework for estimating and modeling N cycling in other streams.

Red wood ants (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) influence on the spatial distribution of small mammals in the conditions of the Volga Upland

The paper presents the results of research devoted to the study of the spatial interaction of small mammals and red wood ants. The aim of the research was to learn the ants Formica aquilonia Yarr. (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) influence on the spatial structure of Micromammalia populations in the Conifer-Deciduous Forests of the Volga Upland. Trapping of mammals was carried out with traps Gero, geobotanical descriptions were made according to standard methods; the package Statistica 6.0 was used for results processing. It was revealed that mouse-like rodents did not avoid ant-trails despite the fact of the ants disturbance factor. Its presumably due to vegetation in the vicinity to anthills, the climate and the conditions created with the plants. The obtained results by the distribution of micromammalia burrows in the space allow us to speak about 2 groups of small mammals with different ecological strategy: gravitating which is near the ant-trails and anthills and careful which settle over a distance. The group core are probably individuals of the dominant species such as bank vole (Cletrionomys glareolus) and pygmy field mouse (Apodemus uralensis). The interaction of small mammals and ants in the mixed forests of the Volga Upland are mediated, apparently, with the influence of vegetation.

Above-Ground Biomass of Black Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) Trees and Stands

Abstract The increasing demand for forest products, diminishing forest land areas, and general concern about the long-term effects of deforestation have increased the need for multipurpose tree species with rapid growth rates. Consequently, information on renewable energy resources is becoming increasingly crucial, and forest biomass determination is becoming a significant part of forestry. Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) is a fast growing, nitrogen fixing, stress tolerant species with durable and high quality wood that can be used for many purposes including wall panelling; vine props; furniture; pulp and paper; animal feed stock; bee forage; and biomass energy. This article presents the above-ground biomass of black locust, both for individual trees and for stands. Information concerning wet and absolute dry wood for stem, merchantable (d1.3 &gt; 5 cm) and small (d 1.3 &lt; 5 cm) wood, and for other tree parts (foliage, bark) for individual trees and for black locust stands are detailed in dendromass tables by six yield classes.

GROWTH AND PRODUCTIVITY OF HYBRID POPLAR PLANTANIONS IN CONDITIONS OF WESTERN FOREST-STEPPE OF UKRAINE

Досліджено особливості росту гібридних тополь в умовах свіжого груду Західного Лісостепу України до 9-річного віку з огляду на доцільність їх використання у короткоротаційних плантаціях. Насадження створено однорічними живцями клонів: 'Дружба' 'Канадська × Бальзамічна' 'Стрілоподібна' і 'Тронко'. Ґрунт – сірий лісовий свіжий. Розміщення садивних місць – 2,0×0,8 м. Під час проведення досліджень застосовано традиційні лісівницькі та таксаційні методи. Найвищу збереженість рослин у 7-річному віці виявлено у клонів 'Тронко' (88 %) і 'Дружба' (86 %), найменшу – у клону 'Канадська × Бальзамічна' – 78 %. Найбільшу середню висоту мав культивар 'Дружба' (10,3±0,33 м). Решта клонів за висотою практично не відрізнялися. Найбільший середній діаметр дерев (7,4±0,33 см) встановлено у клону 'Канадська х Бальзамічна', який мав найменшу збереженість. Найвищий запас визначено у деревостанів клонів 'Канадська × Бальзамічна' (113 м3∙га-1)і 'Дружба' (122 м3∙га-1). Отже, 7-річні насадження продукували від 13,3 до 17,4 м3∙га-1деревини на рік. За наступні 2 роки відбувся значний відпад дерев клонів 'Тронко' і 'Канадська × Бальзамічна', що негативно позначилось на показниках їх запасу. Найвищим запас був у клону 'Дружба' – 139 м3∙га-1. Середня зміна запасу та загальної продуктивності (запас + відпад) усіх клонів виявилися меншими у віці 9 років, ніж у 7, що свідчить про те, що в досліджуваних умовах оптимальний вік рубання деревостанів тополі густотою близько 6 тис. шт. на 1 га становить 6-7 років. При цьому, насадження клону 'Дружба' мають запас 122, 'Канадська × Бальзамічна' – 113, 'Тронко' – 105,'Стрілоподібна' – 93 м3∙га-1.

Sensitivity of acoustic tools to variation in equilibrium moisture content of small clear samples of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda)

There are several types of acoustic tools commercially available for wood characterization, but they are generally classified into resonance and time-of-flight (ToF) tools. This classification is based upon the mode of velocity estimation for wood. In this study, we explored how the equilibrium moisture content of small clear wood samples (2.5 cm × 2.5 cm × 41 cm) affect the predictive capabilities of two types of acoustic tools namely a microsecond timer (ToF) and a resonance log grader (resonance). The results indicated the acoustic velocity is sensitive to equilibrium moisture content of loblolly pine, and sensitivity to EMC is similar for both type of tools. The acoustic velocity decreased by 32.9 and 28.8 m/s for ToF and the resonance acoustic tools respectively for a unit increase in EMC below fiber saturation point (FSP); 5.4 and 6.1 m/s respectively for a unit increase in EMC above FSP although the slope was statistically equivalent to zero. Also, the static MOE of the green samples was overestimated by 16% by both resonance and ToF tools with oven-dried density, while it was 72% when estimated with density at test. The insignificant slope coupled with better accuracy in MOE supports the hypothesis that the cell wall controls the acoustic velocity while the water in the lumen of the cell wall is insignificant. These results bring into question the standard use of green density to estimate acoustic MOE of live trees and oven dry density is instead recommended.

The anisotropic temperature rise on wood surfaces during adsorption measured by thermal imaging

The aim of the work reported herein was to investigate anisotropy in the temperature rise occurring on the surface of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) during adsorption. The temperature increase on the transverse, radial and tangential surfaces of small wood specimens during adsorption was measured by thermal imaging. The experiments were conducted in a purpose-built humidity chamber facilitating the accurate control of the internal relative humidity (RH). It was found that the temperature rise on initially oven-dry wood surfaces exposed to a RH of 95% was anisotropic, with a maximum temperature increase of around 4 °C occurring on the transverse surface and around 1 °C on both the radial and tangential surfaces. Additionally, it was observed that the technique reported can be used to accurately measure the temperature change arising from sorption, thus providing reliable information about the behaviour of wood. This information is vital if the effects of the enthalpy change occurring during water vapour sorption are to be correctly considered in building physics models and the potential to reduce energy consumption in buildings fully realised.

Bending Creep Property of Cross-Laminated Woods Made With Six Domestic Species

In this study, with the view to using effectively small and medium diameter Korean domestic woods as structural materials, cross-laminated woods were manufactured by using six species of Korean domestic softwoods and hardwoods, and bending creep properties were investigated for each species. The creep curves showed the shape of the exponential function plot, and the creep curves after 1 hour were able to estimate by fitting it to the power law. The initial and creep compliances of cross-laminated woods showed the higher values in wood species with a low density than in that with a high density. And by cross-laminating, the initial and creep compliances perpendicular to the grain considerably decreased, the extent of the decrease was found to be greater in creep deformation than in initial deformation. The creep anisotropies of cross-laminated woods were considerably decreased by cross-laminating. The relative creep of C⊥ type composed of perpendicular-direction lamina in the faces decreased 0.59 - 0.64 times compared to that of P⊥ type composed of perpendicular-direction laminae in all layers, and that for C‖ type composed of parallel-direction laminae in the faces increased 1.5 - 1.6 times compared to that of P‖ type composed of parallel-direction laminae in all layers.

Развитие лесного хозяйства малолесного региона: опыт и перспективы

The article describes main directions of forestry development in sparsely wooded region. Changes in forest legislation have led to the formation of the model of forest management focused on the development of entrepreneurship in Voronezh region. It is defined, that the main form of forest use in the region is lease of forest lands. The economic mechanism of forest management in these circumstances should be based on the balance of interests of participants of forest relations (the state, society, community, business). At the regional level, the factors restricting development of forestry are high cost of sanitary and health measures and the difficulty of disposing of small merchantable wood and wood fuel after sanitary felling and thinning. It is established that difficulties in the provision of forest land are associated with existing double counting of some lands and forests in Unified state register of real estate. For the analyzed period, the region has developed a stable business trend in the field of forestry to the development of public-private partnerships. It is proved that for the implementation of the principles of sustainable forest management and creation favorable conditions for the development and implementation of economically, environmentally and socially responsible forest development, we need support of business activities, in terms of creating regional infrastructure for support of entrepreneurship in forest sector (sectoral business incubators on the basis of existing research institutes in cooperation with leading forest universities) and ensuring its activities.

Economic Factors and Physical Properties of Finger Joint Timber Product to Promote Effective Utilization of Natural Resources

Finger joint (FJ) is one of the most sustainable, eco-friendly and economically valuable concept. It ensures the sustainable utilization of small wood cut pieces which removed as waste. Wood pieces are jointed together using glued box comb finger joint cut. It is a new concept for Sri Lankan furniture industry. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze about economic parameters and physical properties of FJ product to ensure the sustainable utilization of FJ timber products. This study attempted to compare strength, appearance and economic variables such as prices, cost of production and profit of FJ products. Comparison of FJ product (Model: STC B-FJ 0019) with the similar size normal timber products (Model:STC B-132) was done to achieve the objective of the study. Three point bending test was done to evaluate Modulus of Elasticity, Modulus of Rupture and maximum force by using UTM. Timber cooperation laboratory was utilized to evaluate strength properties. According to the results of the statistical analysis, strength reduction for FJ products was significantly high. Strength also varied with timber species. Eucalyptus grandis and Pinus showed the highest strength properties while Teak showed the lowst value. MOE values did not show significant difference (0.224) between Jak, Kumbuk, Teak, Mahogany, Pinus, and E. grandis. Strength on vertical and horizontal FJ cuts did not show significant differences although vertical cut was slightly higher. Timber cost for FJ product showed the lowest because of small cut pieces but finishing material, labour, machinery and factory overheads costs were higher than common furniture. Unit production cost for FJ was Rs.171.91 which is higher compared to the cost of normal furniture of Rs. 147.88. FJ furniture showed the higher price most of the time. Therefore, profitability of FJ furniture was significantly higher than common furniture. The uniqueness and high demand help to increase market price and gain more income for producers. On this context FJ product can be promoted to ensure sustainable utilization of timber. Further, this subject is open for further researchers. Keywords: Finger joint, Strength properties, Satisfaction

分断された狭小森林に生息するエゾモモンガPteromys volans oriiによる巣の利用

分断された狭小森林に生息するエゾモモンガPteromys volans oriiによる巣の利用

Properties of small instream wood as a logjam clogging agent: Implications for clogging dynamics based on wood density, water content, and depositional environment

In cooperation with large instream wood (LW) within logjams, small instream wood (SW) can control downstream flux of sediment and particulate organic matter and can play an important role for stream ecosystems. However, information regarding the density and moisture content of SW—which affects wood transport, wood decay, and mass loading—is limited. Here we investigated the SW properties, i.e., density under field conditions (in situ density), basic density, volumetric water content, and depositional environment of SW sampled from five logjams and their backwater areas in two headwater streams (second- and third-order streams) surrounded by mixed broadleaf-conifer forests in western Japan. The in situ density ranged from 0.49 to 1.25gcm−3, and pieces with densities >1.0gcm−3 accounted for 45% of all samples. Additionally, the in situ density of SW closely related to the volumetric water content (r2=0.76) rather than the basic density as an index of solidity or decay condition of wood. The SW that was partially submerged in water had a higher volumetric water content than SW exposed to air. These results indicate that a nonfloating transport cannot be ignored as an important mechanism for SW movement and that in situ density depends not on the solidity of the wood but on water sorption by SW. However, waterlogged SW should be well decayed because it has a lower basic density than air-exposed and sediment-buried SW. We conclude that the moisture conditions of the depositional environment can affect subsequent transport and decay processes of SW. Moreover, most waterlogged and sediment-buried SW, because of its high in situ density (>1.0gcm−3), may contribute to clogging between the channel bed and LW that initiate a logjam during future movements.

Enzymatic Assisted Ultrasonic Pretreatment’s Effect on Poplar Pulp Properties

A combined process consisting of an enzymatic pretreatment of small poplar wood chips, followed by an ultrasonic treatment was proposed and performed. Under the ultrasonic action of cavitation, thermal, and mechanical effects, the two processes of pulping and bleaching can be completed in one procedure. Before the ultrasonic treatment assisted pulping, an enzyme pretreatment was used to destroy the bonds between the cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin to make the subsequent ultrasonic treatment exhibit higher selectivity and efficiency. This provided a poplar ultrasonic assisted pulp (PUP) with a 75% yield. A further analysis of the pulp, utilizing a scanning electron microscope (SEM), showed the fine fibrillation degree of the fiber surface of PUP was comparable to the traditional poplar chemimechanical pulp (PMP) and poplar chemical pulp (PCP). Thermogravimetric analysis and Raman analysis showed that the final residue obtained from the PUP was 20%. In addition, a decorative base paper was successfully made using the poplar ultrasonic pulp, and the physical properties reached or exceeded the industry standard of decorative base paper.

Chauvinism and Solidarity within a Solenopsis Invicta Group as an Origin of Patriotism (A Hypothesis)

Aims. Here we conduct a field-experiment to test a hypothesis about the degrees both of positive and negative level of patriotism in a Solenopsis invicta group to answer a question about: what is the determinant factor which produces patriotism between chauvinism or sense of solidarity. Method. We applied behavioral techniques such as providing food stimulus treatment (glucose), food robber, and a friend who was injured in a controlled manner. In first stage (1), we put a piece of candy near a crowd of fire ants. In second stage (2), we tried to rob the candy with a small wooden stick. In third stage (3), we deliberately injuring one of ants with a wooden stick as we continued to rob the candy. Then we calculated two types of responses: A) negative responses (chauvinism) such as defend the candy from robber (self fish) and attacking the robber (wooden stick), B) positive response (solidarity) such as swarming pieces of candy without a fight but sharing and helping the injured (victim one). Result and discussion. In first stage (1), there were ants swarming pieces of candy without a fight. In second stage (2), a crowd of fire ants group trying to defend the candy while another group attacked our stick. In third stage (3), a group of ants swarming to help the injured (victim one) while several others still fighting for their candy from our wooden stick. In all responses, they behave negatively 60 % and positively 40 %. Its meant that the level of chauvinism was more higher than sense of solidarity in this group. Conclusion. These findings may let us to propose a hypothesis that patriotism seems was more established based on chauvinism than sense of solidarity. It may have natural implications to human behavior that patriotism in all nation was more established based on the need to defend all survival matter including food territories by race instinct than positive traits such as sense of solidarity. Sense of solidarity may exist and has a role in patriotism but in a smaller level than chauvinism. In hope, as human, we could promote our sense of solidarity as a natural inherit more than chauvinism to make the better life.