Small Wild Animals Research Articles

Thoracic manifestations of tularaemia: a case series.

Tularaemia is a zoonotic disease caused by Francisella tularensis, a highly virulent bacterium that affects humans and small wild animals. It is transmitted through direct contact with infected animals or indirectly through contaminated soil, water or arthropod bites (e.g. ticks). Primary thoracic manifestations of tularaemia are infrequent and, therefore, a diagnostic challenge for clinicians. We report six tularaemia cases with exclusively thoracic involvement diagnosed in a clinic for pulmonary diseases in Bavaria between 10/2020 and 02/2022. All patients lived or were active in rural areas, four reported a recent tick bite. All patients presented with thoracic lymphadenopathy and pulmonary tumours or consolidations; all underwent bronchoscopy with EBUS-TBNA of lymph nodes, three lung biopsies as well. Five patients showed inflammatory changes in the endobronchial mucosa. The main histological findings were necrotic epithelioid granulomas with remarkable granulocyte infiltration. All cases were identified by positive serology, five by PCR (here identification of F.t. ssp. Holarctica) from biopsy as well. As first-line therapy, oral ciprofloxacin was given (5/6); in 2/6 cases, a combination of quinolone-rifampicin was given. Pulmonary tularaemia may occur after tick bites and without extrathoracic manifestations. In patients who present with thoracic lymphadenopathy and pulmonary consolidations and who are exposed to increased outdoor activities, tularaemia should be included in the diagnostic pathway. Histologically, the presence of neutrophil-granulocyte infiltrations might help to distinguish tularaemia from other granulomatous infections, e.g. tuberculosis. The combination of quinolone-rifampicin rather than i.v. gentamicin reduced length of hospital stay in two patients.

Prevalence of Astroviruses in Different Animal Species in Poland.

Astroviruses (AstVs) are small RNA viruses characterized by a high mutation rate, the ability to recombine, and interspecies transmission, which allows them to infect a multitude of hosts including humans, companion animals, and farmed animals as well as wildlife. AstVs are stable in the environment, and their transmission is usually through the fecal-oral route or via contaminated water and food. Although direct zoonotic transmission was not confirmed, interspecies transmission events have occurred or have been indicated to occur in the past between wild and domestic animals and humans. They cause large economic losses, mainly in the poultry sector, due to gastroenteritis and mortality. In young children, they are the second most common cause of diarrhea. This study involved 166 intestine samples and pools of spleen, lymph node, and kidney samples collected from 352 wild animals, 52 pigs, and 31 companion animals. Astroviruses were detected in the intestine samples and were separately detected in pools of tissue samples prepared for individual animals using a heminested RT-PCR protocol. Amplicons were subjected to Sanger sequencing, and a phylogenetic analysis of 320 nt RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) fragments referring to known nt sequences of astroviruses was performed. Astroviral RNA was detected in the intestine samples and/or tissue pools of red foxes (nine positive intestines and six positive tissue pools), rats (two positive intestines and three positive tissue pools), a cat (one AstV detected in an intestine sample), pigs (eight positive tissue pools), and wild boars (two positive pools of spleens, kidneys, and lymph nodes). No astroviral RNA was detected in wild mustelids, dogs, or other small wild animals including rodents. A phylogenetic analysis revealed that the astroviruses detected during this study were mostly host-specific, such as porcine, canine, and rat astroviruses that were highly homologous to the sequences of reference strains. In one of two wild boars, an AstV distinct to porcine species was found with the highest nt identity to Avastroviruses, i.e., turkey astroviruses, which suggests potential cross-species transmission of the virus, as previously described. Here, we present the first detection of astroviruses in the population of wild animals, companion animals, and pigs in Poland, confirming that astroviruses are frequent pathogens circulating in animals in the field. Our study also suggests potential cross-species transmission of Avaastrovirus to wild boars; however, further molecular characterization is needed.

Analisis Pelayanan Personel AMC Dalam Menjaga Keselamatan Penerbangan Sisi Udara Di Bandar Udara Jenderal Ahmad Yani Semarang

Apron Movement Control (AMC) officers still frequently find plastic, small screws besides bird carcasses, snails, attacks by small birds and other animals. This researcher aims to find out the analysis of AMC personnel services in maintaining flight safety at General Ahmad Yani Airport in Semarang. To find out what obstacles AMC personnel face in maintaining flight safety at General Ahmad Yani Airport in Semarang and how to overcome them. This study uses a qualitative method. The tools used were the researchers themselves, with the results of observations, in the Apron Movement Control (AMC) unit, interviews and documents as supporting documents to answer the formulation of research questions, the researchers conducted a 3-stage analysis consisting of data reduction, data presentation and Conclusion/Verification. The results of this study indicate that 1) The service of Apron Movement Control (AMC) officers has a very important service in ensuring flight security and safety. This can be seen from the Apron Movement Control (AMC) officers at Jenderal Ahmad Yani Airport in Semarang who always carry out their responsibilities by referring to the SOP, before the plane lands or takes off, the AMC officers already check it first. 2) Obstacles faced by Apron Movement Control (AMC) officers. Foreign Object Debris (FOD) was found in the form of aircraft components or other components, machine tools such as small equipment and special equipment, small debris such as sand, loose rock, Small wood, plastic, besides bird carcasses, snails, attacks by small birds and wild animals are Foreign Object Debris (FOD) located at Jenderal Ahmad Yani Airport, Semarang

Queued viral emergence and risk of global exposure: Langya virus

Queued viral emergence and risk of global exposure: Langya virus

Basic Hazard Control Plan for Small Wild Ungulates Slaughtered for Meat Production.

Animal slaughter plans and related activities must not increase the number of hazards in meat. In their nature, these processes must reduce possible hazards to minimum or acceptable levels. This is a generally accepted concept worldwide; hence, authorities continue to develop regulations that seek to mitigate the scourge of meat hazards for consumer protection. The situation is similar with small wild ungulate meat, in which a hazard analysis plan needs developing to improve meat safety. This investigation follows a narrative review of articles published for a PhD program and other scholarly articles supporting the concept of a basic slaughter plan for small wild ungulate animals in South Africa. The findings of this investigation highlight the need to control hazards within one health concept plan, which should be implemented and propagated by establishing forums that will drive meat safety solutions in these communities. There should be a basic hygiene slaughter plan developed and endorsed by all members of the forum. The outcome must be the control of microbiological, chemical and physical hazards from farm-to-fork, and as part of a system imbedded in game meat policies and regulations.

Taxonomy and Prevalence of Hard Tick Species on Small Ruminants (Goats and Sheep) in Pakistan

Ticks are very dangerous ectoparasites of large and small domestic and wild animals throughout the globe. Tick infestation is the most serious threat to animal health, resulting in significant economic losses in many countries. The current research work was planned to collect, and identify the tick species found on goats and sheep. Four tick species i.e. Hyalomma anatolicum, Hyalomma dromedarii, Dermacentor marginatus and Haemaphysalis punctata were identified. Prevalence rate wise data showed Hyalomma anatolicum (60.50%) followed by Hy. dromedarii (15.50%), Dermacentor marginatus (13.00%) and Haemaphysalis punctata (11.00%). Sex wise data showed that female hosts were more loaded with ticks than male, and young carried more ticks than old. Highest infestation was recorded on goats than sheep. The current study concluded that Hyalomma spp. are widely distributed and need to control them in the whole country especially study area.

The Presence of Mycobacterium leprae in Wild Rodents.

Leprosy is a chronic infection caused by Mycobacterium leprae. There is a lack of data regarding environmental reservoirs, which may represent a serious public health problem in Brazil, especially in the state of Pará, which occupies the fourth position in incidence of cases in the country. Previous studies report evidence of infection occurring among armadillos, mangabei monkeys, and chimpanzees. In the present study, wild animals were captured and tested for the presence of anti-PGL-1 antibodies and M. leprae DNA. Fieldwork was carried out from October to November of 2016 in the cities of Curionópolis and Canaã dos Carajás, southeast of Pará state. Small and medium-sized wild animals were captured using appropriate traps. A total of 15 animals were captured. Sera and viscera fragments were collected and tested by ELISA and PCR methods. The presence of M. leprae DNA was confirmed by sequencing of specific gyrase gene in three animals of two different species, including one Necromys lasiurus (liver sample) and two Proechimys roberti (kidney and liver samples). This unprecedented finding suggests that species other than those previously reported are responsible for maintaining M. leprae in nature.

Detection of Antibodies Against Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus and Other Flaviviruses in a Zoological Collection in Slovenia.

Monitoring infectious diseases is one of the most important pillars of preventative veterinary medicine in zoological collections. The zoo environment offers a great variety of different animal species living in proximity and in contact with small wild animals and vectors (e.g., ticks and mosquitos). In this context, tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), Usutu virus (USUV), and West Nile virus (WNV) causing vector-borne diseases are emerging pathogens that raise concern. The aim of the study was to detect antibodies to selected flaviviruses in various animal species in the Ljubljana Zoo, Slovenia. In total, 874 sera from 96 animal species were tested for antibodies to TBEV by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA); positive samples were confirmed by a virus neutralization test (VNT) using TBEV, WNV, and USUV antigens. Antibodies to TBEV were detected by ELISA in 3.9% (34/874) of zoo animals, with 4% (30/753) in mammals and 5% (4/86) in birds; the sera of reptiles (n = 34) and amphibians (n = 1) were negative. Antibodies to TBEV were confirmed by VNT in 11 mammals; one bird was positive for both WNV and USUV. The mixture of exotic animal species and their contact with wild animals and vectors such as ticks and mosquitos suggest that screening of infectious diseases in zoo animals might provide good insight into the epizootological situation of the area. This is the first survey of TBEV, WNV, and USUV in a zoological collection in Slovenia.

Fecal Sample Collection Method for Wild Birds-Associated Microbiome Research: Perspectives for Wildlife Studies.

Simple SummaryThis paper describes an easy-to-build box for the noninvasive collection of feces from wild birds or small wild animals (up to 1 kg), including a plastic storage box, a plastic tray, and a vinyl-coated hardware cloth. This method could minimize potential contamination and allow for cross-study comparisons on gut microbiomes for wildlife medicine, conservation, ecology, and evolutionary biology.Gut microbial communities play important roles in host health, modulating development, nutrient acquisition, immune and metabolic regulation, behavior and diseases. Wildlife microbiome studies and host–microbe interaction and exploration might be an important goal for evolutionary biology, conservation, and ecology. Therefore, collection and sampling methods must be considered before choosing a microbiome-based research plan. Since the fecal microbial community reflects the true gut community better than that of cloacal swab samples and only few nondestructive methods have been described, we propose an easy-to-build box for a noninvasive fecal collection method. The main components of the collection box include a plastic storage box, a plastic tray, a vinyl-coated hardware cloth, and a 10% bleach solution. In the plastic box, the tray is positioned under the raised grate, where the bird is placed, to reduce the risk of contamination of the fecal samples. This procedure could simplify handling and processing phases in wild birds or other animals. It might represent a cheap and useful method for research studies, wildlife rescue center activities, veterinary practices, and conservation practitioners.

Methods for Monitoring Large Terrestrial Animals in the Wild

Reliable information about wildlife is absolutely important for making informed management decisions. The issues with the effectiveness of the control and monitoring of both large and small wild animals are relevant to assess and protect the world’s biodiversity. Monitoring becomes part of the methods in wildlife ecology for observation, assessment, and forecasting of the human environment. World practice reveals the potential of the joint application of both proven traditional and modern technologies using specialized equipment to organize environmental control and management processes. Monitoring large terrestrial animals require an individual approach due to their low density and larger habitat. Elk/moose are such animals. This work aims to evaluate the methods for monitoring large wild animals, suitable for controlling the number of elk/moose in the framework of nature conservation activities. Using different models allows determining the population size without affecting the animals and without significant financial costs. Although, the accuracy of each model is determined by its postulates implementation and initial conditions that need statistical data. Depending on the geographical, climatic, and economic conditions in each territory, it is possible to use different tools and equipment (e.g., cameras, GPS sensors, and unmanned aerial vehicles), a flexible variation of which will allow reaching the golden mean between the desires and capabilities of researchers.

Rationing of work of veterinary specialists serving small domestic, ornamental and wild animals

Veterinary specialists have been rationing the work in the Russian Federation for more than 60 years. During this period, a lot of material has been accumulated on the development of scientific, methodological and regulatory problems. Recommendations on the regulation of labor of specialists in the field of veterinary medicine have been developed and approved: the time standards for the implementation of anti-epizootic, treatment-and-prophylactic, veterinary-sanitary measures for servicing cattle, pigs, horses, sheep, birds; diagnostic tests carried out by veterinary laboratories, and veterinary and sanitary examination of animal and vegetable products as well. The market of veterinary services in the cities of our country requires the expansion of the list of veterinary services in the field of servicing small domestic, decorative, exotic and wild animals. The article presents: features of the regulation of labor of veterinary specialists; classification of veterinary work depending on their direction, labor capacity, significance for ensuring epizootic well-being; norms of time for performing about 300 types of veterinary work when servicing small pets, 35 wild animals, 32 decorative and exotic animals. The established norms of labor costs for the implementation of veterinary measures in small domestic, decorative, exotic and wild animals will be used for: analysis of personnel support for veterinary institutions; planning their staffing levels; studying the effectiveness of the use of labor resources; establishing reasonable prices for paid veterinary work; determination of reserves for increasing labor productivity of veterinary specialists.

Introduction of an automatic and open‐source radio‐tracking system for small animals

Abstract Movement ecology of small wild animals is often reliant on radio‐tracking methods due to the size and weight restrictions of available transmitters. In manual radio telemetry, large errors in spatial position and infrequent relocations prevent the effective analysis of small‐scale movement patterns and dynamic aspects of habitat selection. Automatic radio‐tracking systems present a potential solution for overcoming these drawbacks. However, existing systems use customized electronics and commercial software or exclusively record presence/absence data instead of triangulating the position of tagged individuals. We present a low‐cost automatic radio‐tracking system built from consumer electronic devices that can locate the position of radio transmitters under field conditions. We provide information on the hardware components, describe mobile and stationary set‐up options, and offer open‐source software solutions. We describe the workflow from hardware setup and antenna calibration, to recording and processing the data and present a proof of concept for forest‐dwelling bats using a mixed forest as study area. With an average bearing error of 6.8° and a linear error of 21 m within a distance ranging from 65 m to 190 m, the accuracy of our system exceeds that of both traditional methods as well as manual telemetry. This affordable and easy‐to‐use automatic radio‐tracking system complements existing tools in movement ecology research by combining the advantages of lightweight and cost‐efficient radio telemetry with an automatic tracking set‐up.

Controle e prevenção de pulgas em cães e gatos: análise das ações dos tutores

As pulgas são insetos achatados lateralmente, sem asas, pertencentes ao Filo Arthropoda, à classe Insecta e à ordem Siphonaptera. Na medicina veterinária, as pulgas são habitualmente encontradas em cães e gatos, porém, elas também vivem em uma variedade de outros animais domésticos e pequenos selvagens. A subespécie predominante que parasita cães e gatos é a Ctenocephalides felis felis, conhecida como pulga do gato, causando no animal ação irritativa e inflamatória, além de transmitir patógenos, onde estas causam perturbação e estresse aos animais, provocados pelas suas picadas e movimentos. A pesquisa foi realizada com tutores de animais de estimação, residentes em duas avenidas do Setor Pestana, em Guaraí Tocantins. A coleta de dados foi realizada através de questionários aplicados a todos os tutores de animais e continha seis perguntas fechadas de múltiplas escolhas. Acerca do questionário sobre o método de prevenção e controle de pulgas nos animais, foi constatado que 54% dos responsáveis utilizam medicamentos oriundos de farmácias. Com isso, conclui-se que prevalece o número de donos de animais que tem consciência dos danos a saúde que as pulgas podem causar a seus animais bem como o impacto econômico.

A Cluster of Bunyavirus-Associated Severe Fever With Thrombocytopenia Syndrome Cases in a Coastal Plain Area in China, 2015: Identification of a Previously Unidentified Endemic Region for Severe Fever With Thrombocytopenia Bunyavirus.

BackgroundSevere fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome (SFTS) is a typical tick-borne, natural focal disease. The natural foci of SFTS were considered to exist in hilly and mountainous areas before 2015. A cluster of 3 patients exposed to a patient with a fulminant disease consistent with SFTS occurred from July to August 2015 in Dongtai County, which is characterized by alluvial plains; this prompted investigation.MethodsThe epidemiological, clinical, and laboratory features of 4 patients in the cluster were analyzed. Serum samples from the indigenous healthy population and native domesticated animals were collected to conduct laboratory tests, along with small wild animals and ticks.ResultsIn 3 secondary case patients, high fever, thrombocytopenia and leukopenia developed within 8–13 days after contact with blood or bloody secretions from the index patient; SFTS was then diagnosed by means of reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. Genomic sequencing and analysis of S and L segments of 2 viral strains isolated from 2 secondary case patients showed that they shared 99.8%–99.9% homology in nucleotide sequence. The seroprevalences among indigenous healthy population, native livestock, native poultry, and small wild animals was 0.74%, 17.54%, 6.67%, and 1.12%, respectively. Three questing ticks, 61 feeding ticks, and 178 small wild animals were collected in August 2015. Survey on tick density and seasonal fluctuation in 2016 showed that ticks were active from March to October. All ticks were identified as Haemaphysalis longicornis. Severe fever with thrombocytopenia bunyavirus (SFTSV)–specific RNA was detected in the ticks collected in 2016, and the minimum SFTSV infection rate in these ticks was 0.54% (1 of 185).Wild mammals and ticks collected in August 2015 tested negative for SFTSV-specific RNA.ConclusionsAside from hilly or mountainous area, a coastal plain was identified as the natural foci of SFTSV in Dongtai County, China. The involvement of migration in the evolution of SFTSV might lead to a transregional transmission event of SFTSV.

Trypanosoma Cruzi Infection in Sugar Gliders (Petaurus Breviceps) and Hedgehogs (Atelerix Albiventris) Via Ingestion

Trypanosomiasis is generally considered an exotic tropical disease. American trypanosomiasis (Chagas' Disease) of dogs, cats, armadillos, monkeys, and small wild animals is caused by Trypanosoma cruzi. Although T. cruzi has been detected in chimpanzees and cynomolgus monkeys in captivity, and experimentally in an Australian phalanger marsupial (Trichosurus vulpecula), this is the first report of it detected in naturally infected “pet” sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps) and African hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris). A polymerase chain reaction-based method was used to detect T. cruzi organisms in formalin fixed paraffin embedded blocks from 3 sugar gliders and 1 hedgehog, which were previously diagnosed as T. cruzi-positive using the histopathological method. Sugar gliders and hedgehogs are fond of insects and actively seek arthropods in nightly forays. It is suspected that Triatoma was not feeding on the sugar gliders and hedgehogs, but rather were being eaten. The oral route of infection is often nonfatal and induces a carrier state in South American didelphid opossums, however sugar gliders and hedgehogs appear to be peracutely affected and infection results in death.

First molecular detection of Theileria luwenshuni from goats in Myanmar.

Tick-borne intracellular protozoan parasites of the Theileria genus infect a wide range of both domestic and wild animals. In the present study, we describe the first PCR detection of Theileria luwenshuni in the blood of goats in Myanmar. Nested PCR targeting the Theileria 18S rRNA gene resulted in seven positive goats in central and northern Myanmar. Nucleotide sequencing of the PCR products revealed that all seven sequences were identical and showed 100% identity with T. luwenshuni sequences in GenBank from goats and sheep in China. Since T. luwenshuni parasites have recently been discovered and shown to have nationwide distribution in China, they might have been introduced into Myanmar via transboundary movement of infected domestic small ruminants and/or wild animals from China.

Multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis of Leptospira interrogans and Leptospira borgpetersenii isolated from small feral and wild mammals in East Asia

Leptospira spp. are the causative agents of a worldwide zoonosis, leptospirosis, maintained by various mammals. Each Leptospira serovar is frequently associated with a particular maintenance host, and recently, Leptospira genotype–host association has also been suggested to limit serovars to restricted areas. We investigated the molecular characteristics of L. interrogans and L. borgpetersenii which were isolated from small feral and wild animals in four East Asian states using multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA).MLVA using 11 loci was performed on 110 L. interrogans serogroups from Japan (79 strains of 5 serogroups from 3 animal species), Philippines (21; 3; 2), Taiwan (7; 2; 3), and Vietnam (3; 1; 1). A MLVA method using 4 loci for L. borgpetersenii was established and performed on 52 isolates from Japan (26; 3; 7), Philippines (13; 1; 2), and Taiwan (13; 1; 3). In L. interrogans, serogroups Autumnalis and Hebdomadis appeared more genetically diverse than serogroups Bataviae, Grippotyphosa, Icterohaemorrhagiae, Pomona, or Pyrogenes. The former serogroup strains with the exception of one Hebdomadis strain were isolated from Apodemus speciosus while all the latter serogroup strains with the exception of Grippotyphosa were isolated from Rattus norvegicus. L. borgpetersenii was isolated from at least 11 animal species while L. interrogans was isolated from five species, which might suggest a wider host range for L. borgpetersenii. Broad host preference in a single genotype was also observed, which colonized not only different species of the same genera but also multiple animal genera.This study demonstrates that there may be variability in the range of genetic diversity among different Leptospira serogroups, which may be attributed to maintenance host animals and environmental factors.

Host choice of Phlebotomus orientalis (Diptera: Psychodidae) in animal baited experiments: a field study in Tahtay Adiyabo district, northern Ethiopia.

BackgroundHost choice and feeding success of sand fly vectors of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) are important factors in understanding the epidemiology and for developing efficient control strategies. The aim of the present study was to determine the host preference of Phlebotomus orientalis in the VL focus of Tahtay Adiyabo district, northern Ethiopia.MethodsTwo separate experiments were conducted testing attraction of P. orientalis to humans, domestic animals, and small wild animals. The host choice of P. orientalis and other sand fly species was assessed using tent traps baited with seven different animals (human, cow, sheep, goat, donkey, dog and chicken) and a blank control. Baited traps were rotated every night in a Latin square design for two consecutive full rounds totaling 16 trap-nights. The second set of experiments tested attraction to small wild animals including; ground squirrel (Xerus rutilus), hare (Lepus sp.), gerbil (Tatera robusta) and spiny mouse (Acomys cahirinus). Animals were caged in standard rodent traps or cylindrical wire-mesh cages. The bait animals were placed in agricultural field and the attracted sand flies were collected using unlit CDC traps for 10 trapping nights. Sand fly specimens collected from each of the experiments were identified to species level and counted.ResultsSignificant difference (P < 0.05) was observed in the attraction and feeding rate of P. orientalis to different baits. In the first experiment, cow-baited tent traps attracted the highest mean number of P. orientalis (mean = 510 flies). The engorgement rate of P. orientalis on donkey was the highest followed by cow, and much lower on goat, sheep, dog and chicken. In the case of smaller wild animals, more numbers of P. orientalis females were attracted to squirrels followed by hares, gerbils and the spiny rat. However, the engorgement rates for P. orientalis in the smaller animals were very low (1.08%) compared with larger domestic animals (30.53%).ConclusionThe tendency of female P. orientalis to engorge in large numbers on certain species of domestic as well as wild animals strongly indicated that the species is primarily zoophilic in its host preference with feeding habits that may vary depending on the availability of hosts.

Wolf (Canis lupus) and elk (Alces alces): The killing of prey

The process of killing of an elk by wolves (from the first grip to death) was investigated. Applying the methodology developed by the author for locating the grips (bites) according to tufts of elk wool cut or torn out by a predator from the prey’s body, the sequence and frequency of grips on the elk body were determined at different stages of the killing process. The greatest number of grips was inflicted to perineum (42.5%), thigh, shin (29.6%), and neck (16.5%), while the least number of grips was made into the belly (3.5%), head (3.5%), breast (2.6%), side (0.9%), and sacrum (0.9%). It was established that, during a killing, predators tended to immobilize the prey and damage the tendons of hind legs or grip vital places. When wolves grip an elk’s breast or neck, large veins or lungs are broken and an air embolism occurs, which causes the blockage of blood vessels and the rapid death of the prey. When killing prey, a pair of wolves (adult male and female) produces fewer grips but damages the vital points, while a family of wolves (pack) injures different parts of the body, making more grips. The latter is associated with the final stage of training the young individuals in killing the prey. This stage was preceded by a training course in hunting small and mid-sized wild and domestic animals. Young wolves first learn to hunt cattle, mostly calves; only after this do they participate in the hunt for elk. General regularities of the killing characteristics of the whole population, pairs, and packs (families) were established.

Bartonella and Bartonella infections in China: From the clinic to the laboratory

The current status of Bartonella studies in mainland China is reviewed including both laboratory and ecological data and limited clinical data. Detection and isolation of Bartonella species from arthropods, pets and small wild animals is commonplace; this includes a variety of known and emerging Bartonella pathogens. In contrast, the medical literature analyzed from 1980 to 2010 consists of 31 reports of only of cat scratch disease (CSD). Most cases are from the East and South-Eastern provinces, the most populated areas with best access to medical care. Disease typically is described as febrile illness with symptoms traditionally reported for CSD elsewhere in the world. Clinical observations and anamnesis are the primary bases for diagnosis, since specialized serologic and molecular diagnosis is not widely available. Seroprevalence of healthy populations determined using Bartonella henselae antigen varies from 9.6 to 19.6%. The apparent discordance postulated between possible environmental exposure to diverse Bartonella agents and restricted B. henselae case etiologies suggests a need to determine whether other Bartonella species may also be etiologic agents of human illness and emphasizes the importance of applying modern diagnostic tools widely in clinical practice in mainland China.