Scyliorhinus Canicula Research Articles

Teeth outside the mouth: The evolution and development of shark denticles.

Vertebrate skin appendages are incredibly diverse. This diversity, which includes structures such as scales, feathers, and hair, likely evolved from a shared anatomical placode, suggesting broad conservation of the early development of these organs. Some of the earliest known skin appendages are dentine and enamel-rich tooth-like structures, collectively known as odontodes. These appendages evolved over 450 million years ago. Elasmobranchs (sharks, skates, and rays) have retained these ancient skin appendages in the form of both dermal denticles (scales) and oral teeth. Despite our knowledge of denticle function in adult sharks, our understanding of their development and morphogenesis is less advanced. Even though denticles in sharks appear structurally similar to oral teeth, there has been limited data directly comparing the molecular development of these distinct elements. Here, we chart the development of denticles in the embryonic small-spotted catshark (Scyliorhinus canicula) and characterize the expression of conserved genes known to mediate dental development. We find that shark denticle development shares a vast gene expression signature with developing teeth. However, denticles have restricted regenerative potential, as they lack a sox2+ stem cell niche associated with the maintenance of a dental lamina, an essential requirement for continuous tooth replacement. We compare developing denticles to other skin appendages, including both sensory skin appendages and avian feathers. This reveals that denticles are not only tooth-like in structure, but that they also share an ancient developmental gene set that is likely common to all epidermal appendages.

Use of vivo-morpholinos for gene knockdown in the postnatal shark retina

Work in the catshark Scyliorhinus canicula has shown that the evolutionary origin of postnatal neurogenesis in vertebrates is earlier than previously thought. Thus, the catshark can serve as a model of interest to understand postnatal neurogenic processes and their evolution in vertebrates. One of the best characterized neurogenic niches of the catshark CNS is found in the peripheral region of the retina. Unfortunately, the lack of genetic tools in sharks limits the possibilities to deepen in the study of genes involved in the neurogenic process. Here, we report a method for gene knockdown in the juvenile catshark retina based on the use of Vivo-Morpholinos. To establish the method, we designed Vivo-Morpholinos against the proliferation marker PCNA. We first evaluated the possible toxicity of 3 different intraocular administration regimes. After this optimization step, we show that a single intraocular injection of the PCNA Vivo-Morpholino decreases the expression of PCNA in the peripheral retina, which leads to reduced mitotic activity in this region. This method will help in deciphering the role of other genes potentially involved in postnatal neurogenesis in this animal model.

The predominant stride-frequency for routine swimming in catsharks (Scyliorhinus canicula) generates high power at high efficiency in the red musculature

Videos of free swimming of catsharks (Scyliorhinus canicula) were analysed to give values of swimming speed (units: FL (fish lengths) s−1), stride-length (forward movement in the direction of travel per cycle of body undulation (units: FL) and stride-frequency (units: s−1). Most of the swims (139 of 163, 85%) were at speeds less than 0.545 FL s−1 and were categorized as slow. The rest (24/163, 15%) were categorized as fast. Stride-lengths and stride-frequencies could be evaluated for 115 of the slow swims and 16 of the fast swims. We discuss the fast swim results, but there were so few fast swims that no firm conclusions could be made. As swim speed increased during slow swims, there was a strong increase stride-length [slope 0.965, P < 0.0001)] and a small increase in stride-frequency. Most stride-frequencies (70/115, 61%) were in the range 0.68–0.88 s−1. Previous experiments on red muscle isolated of catshark showed that in this range of frequencies of sinusoidal movement, high power was produced at high efficiency (Curtin and Woledge b). Lower frequencies gave less power and at higher frequencies the efficiency of energy conversion was lower. Thus, we conclude that during routine swimming catsharks choose a swimming speed that optimizes red muscle performance in terms of power and efficiency.

Trends in the abundance of Celtic Sea demersal fish: Identifying the relative importance of fishing and environmental drivers

The Celtic Sea is a productive fishing ground, therefore identifying the relative importance of fishing and environmental factors on fish stock dynamics is crucial for developing our understanding of sustainable yields and to operationalize Ecosystem Based Fisheries Management (EBFM). We investigated the effect of environmental variables and fishing on the relative abundance inferred from catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE), of twelve demersal stocks (i.e., cod, haddock, whiting, anglerfish, hake, megrim, plaice, sole, lesser-spotted dogfish, spurdog, Trisopterus spp., skates and rays) in the Celtic Sea from 1997 to 2019 (23 years). Annualized time series (1997-2019) of net primary production, bottom temperature, copepod abundance (Calanus finmarchicus and Calanus helgolandicus) and North Atlantic Oscillation index were used to characterize key environmental variables. Fishing exploitation rates (F/FMSY) were used to represent fishing pressure and CPUE trends derived from an International Bottom Trawl Survey (IBTS) were used to infer abundance. We used redundancy analysis to identify key explanatory variables and then dynamic factor analysis to assess their relationships with the CPUE series and identify underlying patterns in the unexplained temporal variation. Our results show that for the majority of demersal fish species, the CPUE trends were strongly influenced by fishing exploitation rates. The gradual reduction in exploitation rates observed throughout the study period most likely led to the partial recovery of cod, spurdog, hake, megrim, plaice, whiting, Trisopterus spp., and the skates and rays. In addition, exploitation patterns on one stock influenced CPUE trends of other demersal stocks (e.g., hake, megrim, plaice, lesser-spotted dogfish, sole). We also observed that the CPUE of whiting, hake and plaice increased when C. finmarchicus were abundant in the plankton. We infer from our findings in the investigated time series that the recovery of cod, spurdog, hake, megrim, plaice, whiting, Trisopterus spp., and the skates and rays in the Celtic Sea remains dependent on controlling fishing mortality, and this would not, at least for now, be confounded by the environmental conditions.

Discard survival of coastal elasmobranchs in a small-scale fishery using acoustic telemetry and recapture data

Discard reduction is a cornerstone of the European Common Fisheries Policy. The discard ban policy, which aims to reduce fisheries discards, is particularly challenging for small-scale fisheries. Demonstrating high survival rates of discarded individuals may provide flexibility to the application of the discard ban through the so-called survival exemption. Here we used acoustic telemetry and mark-recapture data to estimate discard survival of coastal elasmobranch species at multiple temporal scales. We focused on four species targeted by the small-scale fishery in Galicia (NW Spain), one of the most important fishing regions in Europe: Scyliorhinus canicula, Raja undulata, Rajaclavata and Rajabrachyura. The overall survival rate was 90% on the short term and 85.7% on the long term, but it varied among species. Survival rates of R. clavata and S. canicula on the short term were 70% and 100%, respectively, and 66.7% and 92.9% on the long term, respectively. All the individuals of R. brachyura and R. undulata survived on the long term. Our results are critical to support the application of survival exemption in small scale fisheries.

Investigating the effects of microplastic ingestion in Scyliorhinus canicula from the South of Sicily

Plastic pollution is increasing dramatically worldwide, causing adverse effects on a wide variety of marine organisms at all trophic levels. As predators, sharks play a key role in marine ecosystems and they could especially be threatened by the ingestion of microplastics. This study contributes to expand the existing data on the MPs ingestion by a Mediterranean elasmobranch species, Scyliorhinus canicula, adding new information on the potential impact that this class of contaminants can have on the metabolism of this ecologically relevant species. The present research is aimed: i) to assess if the ingestion of MPs in S. canicula is related to sex, size and depth of catch; ii) to evaluate the effect of MPs on fish body condition; iii) to evaluate if the ingested MPs influence the amino acid and fatty acid composition of eye and liver.A total of 61 specimens of S. canicula were analysed. Forty-nine individuals (80.3 %) had ingested plastic items. Totally, 147 plastic elements were found, mainly belonging to small MPs (49 %), and large MPs (46 %), mostly represented by fibers (84 %). The predominant colour was black. No differences were found between sex and size. A difference in the number of items/specimens related to the deep, highest between 50 and 100 m (4.4), while the lowest between 101 and 500 m (2.1) was found. The condition factor (Kn) value was equal to 1.00 highlighting the wellness of the fish. Arginine (20.1 %), Glutamate (17.4), Phenylalanine (15.7 %), Proline (15.6 %) and were the most abundant amino acids in the eyes of S. canicula. The relative fatty acid composition of the livers was dominated by fatty acids SA (30.2 %) (SFA), CA (29.9 %) (SFA) and OA (22.4 %) (MUFA). This paper reports a study on the relationship between amino acids and fatty acids composition and ingested MPs, highlighting that no significant effects were found.

Combining resource population dynamics into impact assessments of native and invasive species under abiotic change

Predicting future changes in interspecific interactions continues to be a challenge for environmental managers. This uncertainty is exacerbated by increasing biological invasions and the likelihood that the strength of trophic interactions among native species will change. Abiotic variables influence predator resource utilisation and abundance as well as resource population dynamics. Currently no practical metric or impact prediction methodology can adequately account for all of these factors. Functional Response (FR) methods successfully incorporate resource utilisation rates with regards to resource density to quantify consumer-resource interactions under varying abiotic contexts. This approach has been extended to create the Relative Impact Potential (RIP) metric to compare invader vs native impact. However, this does not incorporate resource abundance dynamics, which clearly can also change with abiotic context. We propose a Resource Reproduction Qualifier (RRQ) be incorporated into the RIP metric, whereby RRQ is the reciprocal of the fraction or proportion to which reproduction (e.g. of prey species) changes under an environmental context. This modifies the RIP score to give a more informative RIPq value, which may be contextually increased or decreased. We empirically demonstrate the utility and benefits of including RRQ into impact potential predictions with an invasive species (the lionfish Pterois volitans) and two European native species (shanny fish Lipophyris pholis and lesser spotted dogfish Scyliorhinus canicula) under different abiotic contexts. Despite high FR and abundance, lionfish impacts were reduced by increasing prey recruitment at higher temperatures, however, remained high impact overall. Shanny predatory impact increased with increasing temperature and was exacerbated by decreasing prey fecundity. Two population increase scenarios (50% and 80%) were assessed for lesser spotted dogfish under predicted temperature increases, preying upon E. marinus. Both scenarios indicated heightened predatory impact with increasing predator FR and decreasing prey fecundity. Our new metric demonstrates that accounting for resource reproductive responses to abiotic drivers, in tandem with the consumer per capita and abundance responses, better estimate the magnitudes of predicted inter-species interactions and ecological impacts. This can be used in stock assessments and predictions, as well as invasive species risk assessments in a comprehensive yet user-friendly manner..

Developmental genoarchitectonics as a key tool to interpret the mature anatomy of the chondrichthyan hypothalamus according to the prosomeric model.

The hypothalamus is a key vertebrate brain region involved in survival and physiological functions. Understanding hypothalamic organization and evolution is important to deciphering many aspects of vertebrate biology. Recent comparative studies based on gene expression patterns have proposed the existence of hypothalamic histogenetic domains (paraventricular, TPa/PPa; subparaventricular, TSPa/PSPa; tuberal, Tu/RTu; perimamillary, PM/PRM; and mamillary, MM/RM), revealing conserved evolutionary trends. To shed light on the functional relevance of these histogenetic domains, this work aims to interpret the location of developed cell groups according to the prosomeric model in the hypothalamus of the catshark Scyliorhinus canicula, a representative of Chondrichthyans (the sister group of Osteichthyes, at the base of the gnathostome lineage). To this end, we review in detail the expression patterns of ScOtp, ScDlx2, and ScPitx2, as well as Pax6-immunoreactivity in embryos at stage 32, when the morphology of the adult catshark hypothalamus is already organized. We also propose homologies with mammals when possible. This study provides a comprehensive tool to better understand previous and novel data on hypothalamic development and evolution.

Hide and seek shark teeth in Random Forests: machine learning applied to Scyliorhinus canicula populations.

Shark populations that are distributed alongside a latitudinal gradient often display body size differences at sexual maturity and vicariance patterns related to their number of tooth files. Previous works have demonstrated that Scyliorhinus canicula populations differ between the northeastern Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea based on biological features and genetic analysis. In this study, we sample more than 3,000 teeth from 56 S. canicula specimens caught incidentally off Roscoff and Banyuls-sur-Mer. We investigate population differences based on tooth shape and form by using two approaches. Classification results show that the classical geometric morphometric framework is outperformed by an original Random Forests-based framework. Visually, both S. canicula populations share similar ontogenetic trends and timing of gynandric heterodonty emergence but the Atlantic population has bigger, blunter teeth, and less numerous accessory cusps than the Mediterranean population. According to the models, the populations are best differentiated based on their lateral tooth edges, which bear accessory cusps, and the tooth centroid sizes significantly improve classification performances. The differences observed are discussed in light of dietary and behavioural habits of the populations considered. The method proposed in this study could be further adapted to complement DNA analyses to identify shark species or populations based on tooth morphologies. This process would be of particular interest for fisheries management and identification of shark fossils.

Drivers of parasite communities in three sympatric benthic sharks in the Gulf of Naples (central Mediterranean Sea)

Sharks play a key role in the functioning of marine ecosystems and maintenance of trophic web balance, including life cycles of parasites co-occurring in their habitats. We investigated the structure of parasite communities of three sympatric shark species (Etmopterus spinax, Galeus melastomus, and Scyliorhinus canicula) and explored both the influence of host features in shaping the communities and their role as biological indicators of environment stability in the Gulf of Naples (central Mediterranean Sea), a geographical area characterized by strong anthropic pressure. Parasites found were all trophic transmitted helminths with a complex life cycle, except Lernaeopoda galei, that is a ecto-parasite copepod. Communities were all similarly impoverished with 4–5 component species and low values of species richness and diversity. Higher abundance of cestode larvae of the genus Grillotia was found in G. melastomus, although their dominance in all host species suggests that the three sharks have a similar role as intermediate/paratenic hosts in local food webs. Similarly, high abundance of Grillotia larvae could also suggest the occurrence of high abundance of largest top predators in the area. Host morphological (fork length in S. canicula and G. melastomus and body condition index in G. melastomus) and physiological (sex and gonadosomatic and hepatosomatic indices in S. canicula) variables were differently correlated to parasite community structures depending by host species. Potential reasons for the present impoverished parasite communities are discussed.

3D models related to the publication: Hide and seek shark teeth in Random Forests: Machine learning applied to Scyliorhinus canicula

3D models related to the publication: Hide and seek shark teeth in Random Forests: Machine learning applied to Scyliorhinus canicula

An epithelial signalling centre in sharks supports homology of tooth morphogenesis in vertebrates.

Development of tooth shape is regulated by the enamel knot signalling centre, at least in mammals. Fgf signalling regulates differential proliferation between the enamel knot and adjacent dental epithelia during tooth development, leading to formation of the dental cusp. The presence of an enamel knot in non-mammalian vertebrates is debated given differences in signalling. Here, we show the conservation and restriction of fgf3, fgf10, and shh to the sites of future dental cusps in the shark (Scyliorhinus canicula), whilst also highlighting striking differences between the shark and mouse. We reveal shifts in tooth size, shape, and cusp number following small molecule perturbations of canonical Wnt signalling. Resulting tooth phenotypes mirror observed effects in mammals, where canonical Wnt has been implicated as an upstream regulator of enamel knot signalling. In silico modelling of shark dental morphogenesis demonstrates how subtle changes in activatory and inhibitory signals can alter tooth shape, resembling developmental phenotypes and cusp shapes observed following experimental Wnt perturbation. Our results support the functional conservation of an enamel knot-like signalling centre throughout vertebrates and suggest that varied tooth types from sharks to mammals follow a similar developmental bauplan. Lineage-specific differences in signalling are not sufficient in refuting homology of this signalling centre, which is likely older than teeth themselves.

Acute Stress in Lesser-Spotted Catshark (Scyliorhinus canicula Linnaeus, 1758) Promotes Amino Acid Catabolism and Osmoregulatory Imbalances.

Simple SummaryIn catsharks (Scyliorhinus canicula), air exposure induces amino acid catabolism altogether with osmoregulatory imbalances. This study describes a novel NHE isoform being expressed in gills that may be involved in ammonium excretion.Acute-stress situations in vertebrates induce a series of physiological responses to cope with the event. While common secondary stress responses include increased catabolism and osmoregulatory imbalances, specific processes depend on the taxa. In this sense, these processes are still largely unknown in ancient vertebrates such as marine elasmobranchs. Thus, we challenged the lesser spotted catshark (Scyliorhinus canicula) to 18 min of air exposure, and monitored their recovery after 0, 5, and 24 h. This study describes amino acid turnover in the liver, white muscle, gills, and rectal gland, and plasma parameters related to energy metabolism and osmoregulatory imbalances. Catsharks rely on white muscle amino acid catabolism to face the energy demand imposed by the stressor, producing NH4+. While some plasma ions (K+, Cl− and Ca2+) increased in concentration after 18 min of air exposure, returning to basal values after 5 h of recovery, Na+ increased after just 5 h of recovery, coinciding with a decrease in plasma NH4+. These changes were accompanied by increased activity of a branchial amiloride-sensitive ATPase. Therefore, we hypothesize that this enzyme may be a Na+/H+ exchanger (NHE) related to NH4+ excretion. The action of an omeprazole-sensitive ATPase, putatively associated to a H+/K+-ATPase (HKA), is also affected by these allostatic processes. Some complementary experiments were carried out to delve a little deeper into the possible branchial enzymes sensitive to amiloride, including in vivo and ex vivo approaches, and partial sequencing of a nhe1 in the gills. This study describes the possible presence of an HKA enzyme in the rectal gland, as well as a NHE in the gills, highlighting the importance of understanding the relationship between acute stress and osmoregulation in elasmobranchs.

Pre-Hatching Ontogenetic Changes of Morphological Characters of Small-Spotted Catshark (Scyliorhinus canicula)

The small-spotted catshark, Scyliorhinus canicula, provides an optimal model organism to include chondrichthyans in studies comparing morphology or physiology through vertebrate evolution. In particular, for investigations with ontogenetic aspects, there are only a limited number of alternative taxa. Therefore, a detailed staging system is a prerequisite to allowing comparison between different studies. This study supplements information on the latest stages of the established system by Ballard and colleagues in 1993 and complements the respective staging system by including the latest pre-hatching stages. During this phase, some significant ontogenetic shifts happen, e.g., reduction of external gill filament length and complete flattening of rostral angle until Size Class 6, change in the ratio of pre- to post-vent length, and establishment of body pigmentation in Size Classes 7 and 8. All these shifts finally transform the embryo into a hatchling prepared for living outside the eggshell. This study provides a framework allowing comparison of investigations on pre-hatchings of the small-spotted catshark.

Parasitic Load, Hematological Parameters, and Trace Elements Accumulation in the Lesser Spotted Dogfish Scyliorhinus canicula from the Central Tyrrhenian Sea.

Simple SummaryThe elasmobranchs, being at the apex of the marine food chain, act as final receptors of polluting elements that are regularly discharged into the sea and, therefore, usually are considered good bioindicators of environmental pollution. The main goal of this study was to describe helminthic communities, hematological parameters, and the concentrations of trace elements in vertebrae, skin, and liver for a population of lesser spotted dogfish from the Tyrrhenian Sea. Findings suggest that there is sometimes a correlation among these parameters and between them as well as environmental pollution.Parasitological, hematological, and ecotoxicological analyses were carried out on a population of lesser spotted dogfish Scyliorhinus canicula from the central Mediterranean Sea. Parasitological analyses highlighted a poor helminthic community, highly dominated by a single taxon represented by the cestode Nybelinia sp. No differences in the parasitic load between females and males were observed. Hematological analyses showed that the number of leukocytes was significantly lower in the sharks that resulted in parasitism, and this could be due to the ability of some trace elements, such as arsenic, weakening the immune system and exposing animals to a higher risk of parasite infection, although further hematological and parasitological analyses are required on a larger number of samples. Trace elements analyses in the vertebrae, skin, and liver highlighted that the most abundant and potentially toxic elements were lead (Pb), arsenic (As), and cadmium (Cd). Other trace elements were also abundant, such as manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), and iron (Fe). Pb, As, and Mn showed the highest concentrations in vertebrae, while Cd, Cu, and Zn were the highest in the liver, probably due to their concentration in the prey items of the sharks; Fe and Ni showed the highest concentrations in the skin, due to their presence in the water column, especially along the coast where animals were collected. The concentration of some trace elements analyzed in the vertebrae decreased with the growth of the sharks. These results confirm that elasmobranchs, being predators at the apex of the marine food chain, act as final receptors for a series of polluting elements regularly discharged into the sea.

Echinocephalus caniculus n. sp. (Nematoda: Gnathostomatidae Railliet, 1895) from the lesser spotted dogfish Scyliorhinus canicula (L.) (Elasmobranchii: Scyliorhinidae Gill, 1862) off Tunisia, with a key to species of the genus Echinocephalus

Echinocephalus caniculusn. sp. (Nematoda, Gnathostomatidae Railliet, 1895) was isolated from the spiral valve of the lesser spotted dogfish Scyliorhinus canicula (L.) from the waters off Kalaat El Andalous, North East Tunisia. This new species is mainly characterized by a cephalic bulb armed with 31–39 transverse rows of uncinated hooks, a comparatively long oesophagus, short spicules and the presence of a gubernaculum. The new species differs from its congeners by having four cervical sacs of almost equal length, a higher oesophagus/body length ratio, the arrangement of the caudal papillae, the absence of a medioventral preanal organ and numerous scattered `pores´ limited to the lateral side of the posterior part of the body. This is the first report of a member of the genus Echinocephalus Molin, 1858 from the Tunisian coast, and a new host and locality record for the Gnathostomatidae. A key to the species of Echinocephalus is provided.

Fisheries bycatch and conservation priorities of young sharks (Chondrichthyes: Elasmobranchii) in the Eastern Mediterranean

Sharks are one of the most threatened groups of marine animals because of high exploitation rates coupled with low resilience to fishing pressure. We provide information on the current status of the young sharks caught in fishing nets in Iskenderun and Mersin Bays in the eastern Mediterranean, based on fishery-dependent surveys conducted between 2010 and 2021. Sharks were found in bycatches in trawling nets, trammel nets, bottom longlines and fishing lines. Incidental captures of young-of-the-year or juvenile specimens (n=269) included 15 species and the data indicate that İskenderun and Mersin Bays may serve as a nursery ground for the new-born and young individuals especially for the Blackmouth Catshark (Galeus melastomus), the Lesser Spotted Dogfish (Scyliorhinus canicula), and the Velvet Belly (Etmopterus spinax). If necessary measures are taken, bycatch can be reduced to a certain limit, or even eliminated for shark species in the Mediterranean Sea.

Determination of Maturity and reproductive cycle of Small Spotted Catshark Scyliorhinus canicula (Linnaeus, 1758)(Scyliorhinidae: Elasmobranchii) From the Syrian marine water

This study was carried out in the Marine Sciences Laboratory of Agriculture Faculty at Tishreen University, in collaboration with the Higher Commission for Scientific Research, on the Small Spotted Catshark Scyliorhinus canicula (Linnaeus, 1758) in the Syrian marine water (Eastern Levant of Mediterranean sea); From Rass Albassit northward ( 35° 55  N), to the Lebanese borders southward (°34 50´ N). During the period January 2012 to September 2013. 417 specimens (231 females, 186males) were collected at depths 50-250 m, from sandy or sandy-muddy bottoms by different fishing gears; mainly hook sub bottom. S. canicula suffers an overfishing into the Syrian marine water. The highest fishing quantity was during spring and summer. The total length of specimens ranged from 225 to 515 mm TL, and weighed from 22 - 380 g. Smallest specimens matured of males and females were 355, 350 mm, respectively. The total length ranged from 355 -500 mm TL for adult males, and 350 -515 mm TL for adult females. S. canicula is an oviparous species. The largest yolky oocytes diameter was 12 mm, and weighed 1.3 g. The ripe oocytes is covered and ovulated as an egg capsule. The length of egg capsules ranged from 42 -50 mm, their width from 16-18 mm, and their mass reached to 4.8 g.

Early shape divergence of developmental trajectories in the jaw of galeomorph sharks

BackgroundThe onset of morphological differences between related groups can be tracked at early stages during embryological development. This is expressed in functional traits that start with minor variations, but eventually diverge to defined specific morphologies. Several processes during this period, like proliferation, remodelling, and apoptosis for instance, can account for the variability observed between related groups. Morphological divergence through development is often associated with the hourglass model, in which early stages display higher variability and reach a conserved point with reduced variability from which divergence occurs again to the final phenotype.ResultsHere we explored the patterns of developmental shape changes in the lower jaw of two shark species, the bamboo shark (Chiloscyllium punctatum) and the catshark (Scyliorhinus canicula). These two species present marked differences in their foraging behaviour, which is reflected in their adult jaw morphology. By tracing the developmental sequence of the cartilage condensation, we identified the onset of cartilage for both species at around stage 31. Other structures that developed later without a noticeable anlage were the labial cartilages, which appear at around stage 33. We observed that the lower jaw displays striking differences in shape from the earliest moments, without any overlap in shape through the compared stages.ConclusionsThe differences observed are also reflected in the functional variation in feeding mechanism between both species. Likewise, the trajectory analysis shows that the main differences are in the magnitude of the shape change through time. Both species follow a unique trajectory, which is explained by the timing between stages.

The Gyaros island marine reserve: A biodiversity hotspot in the eastern Mediterranean Sea.

Since July 2019, Gyaros island in the central Aegean Sea, enjoys the status of a partial Marine Protected Area (MPA), allowing for exploitation by small-scale fishers following specific spatio-temporal restrictions. The need for assessing the effectiveness of the MPA in the future, led MAVA Foundation to fund a knowledge survey project aiming to serve as a baseline for future reference. A series of experimental fishing surveys took place with static nets, the outcomes of which are presented herein. From June 2018 to September 2020, a series of 8 fishing excursions with a total of 40 experimental fishing sets with bottom static nets were realized in 5 set locations around Gyaros island, inside the MPA protection zone. A total of 75 species were identified; the most abundant species, in terms of biomass, being: parrotfish-Sparisoma cretense, red scorpionfish-Scorpaena scrofa, common spiny lobster-Palinurus elephas, red porgy-Pagrus pagrus, little tunny–-Euthynnus alletteratus, Mediterranean moray-Muraena helena, lesser spotted dogfish -Scyliorhinus canicula, forkbeard-Phycis phycis, surmullet-Mullus surmuletus, common cuttlefish-Sepia officinalis and common Pandora-Pagellus erythrinus. A comparison with similar data in adjacent areas outside the MPA allowed for assessing the effectiveness of the MPA based on four indicators: species diversity index, species relative biomass index, key predator species abundance, and alien fish abundance. Based solely on the experimental fishing trials, the MPA seems to be functioning, since both species diversity and abundance were higher within the protected area. However, its performance may still not be considered as optimal, as this is indicated by the large proportion of undersized key predators (e.g. groupers), although more abundant and larger than the ones residing outside the MPA.