Small Farm Size Research Articles

Understanding smallholder decision‐making to increase farm tree diversity: Enablers and barriers for forest landscape restoration in Western Kenya

Abstract Integrating diverse trees and shrubs (hereafter ‘trees’) in agricultural landscapes has emerged as a crucial nature‐based solution to the triple challenge of biodiversity loss, climate change and food security. The potential benefits of on‐farm trees for both people and nature, however, are often constrained by inadequate consideration of local socio‐ecological factors and an overall lack of species diversity. A deeper understanding of what drives farmers' decision‐making in diversifying farm trees is needed to ensure that scaling up tree‐based restoration efforts in smallholder landscapes delivers the promised benefits locally and globally. We conducted surveys with 620 smallholder farmers across Vihiga County in Western Kenya using an extended version of the Theory of Planned Behaviour to investigate potential drivers of smallholder intentions to grow more diverse woody plants on their farms. Data was analysed using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). We found that farmers were more likely to diversify on‐farm trees if they had completed education beyond secondary school, derived all their income from their farms, were household heads and were among the wealthiest 20% of farmers. Our results revealed that farmers' decisions about increasing tree diversity were also influenced by socio‐psychological factors, namely their past experiences, the perceived behaviour and opinions of other farmers, their confidence in their ability to increase tree diversity, and their attitudes toward the expected outcomes of growing a wider range of tree species. Key barriers preventing farmers from diversifying were concerns about attracting harmful wildlife, decreasing soil fertility, small farm sizes, lack of time and knowledge, and certain cultural beliefs about planting trees. Synthesis and applications. Understanding the factors influencing farmers' intentions to increase tree diversity on their farms has substantial implications for the success of nature‐based solutions in Western Kenya and other densely populated smallholder landscapes. Addressing the identified barriers and enablers is crucial to design targeted interventions to promote sustainable tree diversification practices among smallholders to bolster local livelihoods and food security while contributing to biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Understanding Farmers' Use of Improved Maize Seeds in Uganda

While maize is a key crop for national food security and employment, most maize-growing households have small overall average farm sizes and remain highly vulnerable. The overall cultivated area of maize has been increasing, although such growth has not seen a commensurate gain in yields. The government of Uganda is concerned with this situation and has supported farmers with policies and projects to improve maize yields and, thereby, farm incomes. These projects have generated solid evidence showing that the use of improved seed generates higher productivity and financial returns compared with the use of traditional seeds. In spite of this, the use of improved seeds remains low in Uganda. This paper examines the key factors that influence farmers’ decisions to adopt the use of improved maize seeds. To address this objective, a large sample of more than 3,600 maize farmers was analyzed using a binary logistic regression model. We found that maize farmers tend to use improved seeds when they also use fertilizers and pesticides, when improved seeds are obtained from the government and/or purchased from reputable agro-input dealers, and when credit services are readily available. However, a key factor that prevents small maize farmers from using improved seeds is their overall level of vulnerability. For the majority the risk is too high; rather than embarking on investing in seeds with a promise of higher net returns, they prefer to continue using the relatively cheaper traditional seeds that reduce the risk of family members experiencing hunger and poverty. The government needs to provide an enabling environment to make agricultural insurance available to small farmers if the use of improved seeds is to be expanded significantly.

Factors affecting rice domestic production output in Preah Vihear province, Cambodia: A study using OLS regression model

This study explores the attitudes of domestic farmers toward rice production practices and identifies factors affecting rice yields in Preah Vihear Province. Cambodia's economy is heavily reliant on rice cultivation. Rice is a staple food and a major export, significantly contributing to the nation's food security. However, rice production in the entire country faces challenges such as limited irrigation, small farm sizes, and geographical constraints. Preah Vihear province, a remote, mountainous area in northern Cambodia bordering Thailand and Laos, is a key rice-producing region characterized by hilly terrain and small-scale farming. Known for its stunning natural beauty and the famous Preah Vihear Temple, a UNESCO World Heritage site, the province offers unique opportunities for farmers to increase their income and gain access to international markets through distinctive and renowned rice seeds. To better understand factors affecting rice domestic production in Preah Vihear, a primary statistical ordinary least squares (OLS) model will be applied to analyze rice output and related variables. The findings of this study are instrumental in developing targeted strategies that aim to enhance rice yields and improve the livelihoods of rural farmers. By identifying key controllable factors, farmers can make informed decisions to increase their profits, ensure sustainable rice production, and contribute to the overall economic growth of farming communities.

Social constructs, male prejudices, tradition and culture: are these undermining female-headed farming households’ fundamental right to food security?

PurposeAmidst a substantial body of research investigating gender discrimination within formal employment sectors, this study concentrates on a critical yet frequently overlooked dimension: the non-formal agriculture sector. It aims to elucidate how prevailing male prejudices and entrenched social constructs systematically disadvantage female household heads in their quest for household food security.Design/methodology/approachThis study investigates food security status and statistical disparities between female-headed and male-headed households utilizing data from 63,601 farming households. By identifying the factors contributing to gender-based discrimination, we empirically evaluate their impact on households’ food security by applying the discrete choice ordered logit model.FindingsThe results demonstrate significantly higher levels of food insecurity among female-headed households than their male counterparts (p < 0.05). It empirically establishes that factors contributing to discrimination adversely affect female farmers’ ability to secure food. These factors include challenges in accessing markets, smaller farm sizes and receiving less government assistance than male farmers.Originality/valueWhile previous studies have acknowledged gender discrimination, this research is the first to systematically demonstrate how various factors directly impact food security in female-headed households in Fiji, thereby addressing a critical gap in the literature. Focusing specifically on the intersection of gender discrimination and food security, this study provides robust empirical evidence of the profound influence of gender discrimination and male biases on the food security of these households, thereby making a significant and original contribution to the field and underlining the importance of this research.

Adoption of modern aquaculture technologies in fish farming: The case of rural Bangladesh

Traditional techniques have been used in fish farming in Bangladesh since ancient times. However, nowadays the adoption of modern technologies in fish farming in Bangladesh has revolutionized the industry. The goal of this research was to investigate the factors that influence fish farmers' decisions to accept new technologies for aquaculture and to ascertain the degree to which fish farmers have adopted these new technologies. A total of 101 fish farmers in the Trishal Upazila of the Mymensingh district were randomly selected and interviewed using a structured interview schedule. The research found that most of the sample fish farmers were middle to old-aged, had small farm sizes, and earned low to medium income. A significant number of fish farmers didn't receive any training, and about half of them had moderate farming experience. The majority of respondents in this survey had average levels of extended media interaction, organizational engagement, and fish farming expertise. Based on the statistics, we can deduce that 46.53 % of fish farmers made minimal use of some fish farming technology, while 20.79 % used them very little, and 32.67 % utilized them extensively. From the list of eleven socio-demographic characteristics, adopting modern aquaculture technologies was positively and significantly correlated with education, farm size, annual fish farming income, experience, and knowledge of fish farming. The most significant positive link was seen between fish farming experience and adoption. The survey revealed that financial stress, lack of adequate training, market instability, and resource deficits are the major obstacles to modern aquaculture technology adoption, while cultural resistance is the least significant. These factors collectively slow the progress of modernizing fish farming in Bangladesh, despite the potential benefits of improved yields and sustainability. Hence, by resolving these issues, the study area will have more space to employ advanced aquaculture technologies, paving the way to sustainable fish farming in Bangladesh.

Prevalence of bean scab caused by Elsinoë phaseoli and challenges associated with bean cultivation in Kenya.

This study investigated the prevalence of scab caused by Elsinoë phaseoli causing yield losses on beans in Kenya. The research focused on common practices and challenges faced by subsistence farmers with the aim of providing insights into scab prevalence, impact, and potential management challenges. A structured questionnaire was employed in a survey conducted in 2022 and 2023, covering major bean-growing regions using a three-stage sampling design. Data from 128 bean farmers included information on farm size, seed sources, cropping systems, awareness of challenges, and pest/disease management practices. Scab prevalence was determined by scouting for symptoms, with a total of 84 farms surveyed in 2021. The incidence of bean scab was confirmed in all surveyed clusters, indicating its widespread occurrence across various agro-ecological zones. Farmers exhibited common practices such as preference for uniform bean seeds (61%), use of uncertified seeds (83%), intercropping (80%), and limited crop rotation. Challenges included disease and pest infestations, with limited diversity in management options. Confirmation of the presence of bean scab in diverse agro-ecological zones emphasizes its importance and the need for further research on its impact and epidemiology. Challenges with crop rotation were evident due to small farm sizes and subsistence-focused farming. The study recommends further research for a comprehensive understanding of the link between increased scab importance and current bean farming practices such as short rotation periods and the use of susceptible varieties. Training programs are also vital to improve farmers' knowledge on safe agro-chemical use, ensuring sustainable constraint management in common bean cultivation in Kenya.

Drought Adaptation Strategies Among Smallholder Cereal Farmers In Makueni County, Kenya

Increasing frequency and severity of drought increase vulnerability of smallholder cereal farmers globally. Arid and Semi-Arid Lands cover 80% of Kenya and location around the equator are major factors in drought development in the country. Frequent droughts result in fluctuations in cereal yields hence food insecurity in Makueni County. This study evaluated community-based and indigenous knowledge drought adaptations practiced by smallholder cereal farmers in Makueni County, Kenya. This study adopted explanatory sequential mixed methods research design. Household surveys (N=225) and key informant interviews (N=16) were used. Descriptive techniques were used in data analysis. The study found that frequent droughts in Makueni County resulted in adoption of small farm sizes for production of maize, sorghum and finger millet. Majority of the farmers produced between 1 and 10 bags of cereals. Majority (50.2%) of the smallholder cereal farmers who adopted community-based adaptations and indigenous knowledge-based drought adaptations strategies recorded an in increase in cereal yields in Makueni County. Early planting (66.7%), timely weeding (61.4%), manure application (57.0%), improving land tillage (56.1%), seed spacing (55.3%) and planting droughtresilient seeds (44.7%) led to the high annual cereal yields ranging between 1 and 10 bags in Makueni County. The drought adaptation strategies are commendable for upscaling in agro-ecological zones with similar climatic conditions in order to improve food production in the country. Information and data generated by this study is expected to result in improvement in drought adaptation policy formulation and adaptive capacity of smallholder cereal farmers hence, improvement in food production and security.

Economic Assessment of Small-Scale Mountain Dairy Farms by Using Accounting Data: Evidence from an Italian Case Study

Dairy mountain farms are economically disadvantaged due to small farm sizes and high production costs. This situation was exacerbated firstly by the opening of the market linked to the abolition of milk quotas; secondly by the rising prices due to the energy crisis due to covid 19 and the war in Ukraine. However, these farms are important for the preservation of traditional landscapes, the economy of these areas and the offered ecosystem services, especially when they are managed extensively. The objective of this research is to understand if mountain dairy farms are economically sustainable and competitive through the analysis of a case study. The economic analysis takes into account the production cost of milk, profitability, and some economic indicators using accounting data. The results show that the farm profitability is decreasing, and the costs are unsustainable. As a consequence, more efficient policy support is needed to overcome this crisis.

Economics and Constraints of Organic Turmeric at Kakching District of Manipur

Background: As the locale of the present study has high potential for production of organic turmeric, so to take the relevant measures for best exploit the resources and to create more income and employment to the rural people. Methods: The present study is based on 200 turmeric growers drawn by adopting a multistage purposive stratified simple random sampling technique from Kakching district; based on the primary data, collected through personal interview method with the help of pre-tested and well structured questionnaire exclusively designed pertaining for the agricultural year 2020-2022. Result: The majority (93.00 per cent) of the respondents belonged to semi-medium land holding with an area of 2.01 to 3.00 ha, total gross return was highest (₹ 1,61,768.44/-) for medium farm size group and benefit-cost ratio was highest (2.64 : 1) for small farm size group. The major production constraint was lack of proper inputs, lack of training, lack of irrigation facility, lack of quality planting material etc.

Spatiotemporal modeling of household's food insecurity levels in Ethiopia

The state of moderate and severe food insecurity in Ethiopia has not been significantly reduced for a long time due to cultural, natural, and manmade shocks, which cover most part of the country with considerable magnitude and have adverse effects on the health and economy. This temporal evolution of the wider geographic distribution of the food insecurity levels has not been investigated for the feeding culture and shocks effect in Ethiopia, though previous studies have indicated significant geographic distribution and related factors. In addition, the longtime zone-specific comprehensive drivers were not assessed. Therefore, this study focused on investigating the feeding culture-adjusted food insecurity levels (FCSL) and their evolutional sustainability across zones by identifying the factors causing each level of household's food insecurity tailored to a specific zone.In this study, Ethiopian socio-economic longitudinal data from years 2012, 2014, and 2016 with a sample size of 3835 households were analyzed. An ordinal spatiotemporal model with different interactions under empirical Bayes estimation was adopted, and the type III interaction with Markov random field was selected to reveal the evolution of FCSL sustainability across zones and find-out the causing factors of households to each level of food insecurity tailored to zone-level by analyzing the effects of diverse factors and shocks. The result reveals that a greater portion (52.07 %) of households’ population is moderately and chronically food insecure. Basically, households living in neighboring zones have significantly similar food insecurity levels, and slight improvements were observed over time. This transition over time within neighboring zones, revealed that chronic food insecurity in neighboring zones has transited to moderate food insecurity, particularly in most of the northern and southwestern areas of Ethiopia. However, the interaction term showed that the change in food insecurity levels for households living in neighboring zones is similar at one time point, but the evolution is not sustainable. Therefore, working on major zone-specific factors, such as enhancing zone-level urbanization through improving market and road linkage to rural areas, education, employment, non-agricultural businesses, and promoting integrated farming by conserving soil with consideration of additional confounding factors, will bring change and can sustainably eradicate moderate and chronic food insecurity in zone households through controlling dependency ratios, shocks, and small land size farming. This study brings resilient, manageable, and zone-specific mitigation for households living in food-insecure and vulnerable zones.

A Comparative Analysis of Household Food Insecurity Status among Rice Farmers in Savanna and the Rainforest Agro-ecological Zones in Southwest States, Nigeria

The study presents findings on comparative analysis of household food insecurity status among rice farmers in the Savanna and the Rainforest agro-ecological zones in Southwest States, Nigeria. Primary data were used and obtained through the administration of a well structured questionnaire. A multistage random sampling was used to select 577 rice farmers in the study area. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, household food insecurity access (HFIA) scale, household food insecurity access prevalence (HFIAP) scale, likert scale and linear regression model. The results revealed that majority of the rice farmer’s fall within 31-50 years of age bracket, with household size of 5-8 persons, married, with farming experiences and have small farm size. The findings from average household food insecurity access scale scores in the Savanna and the Rainforest agro-ecological zones were 4.0 (mildly food insecure) and 5.2 (moderately food insecure) respectively. The results of HFIAP indicator revealed that about 39.1% and 33.5% of respondents were classified as food secure, 8% and 13.9% were mildly food insecure, 15.1% and 22.2% were moderately food insecure and 37.8% and 30.4% were severely food insecure in the Savanna and the Rainforest agro-ecological zones respectively. The major coping strategies adopted by the respondents against food insecurity include reduce the quantity of food consumed and eating but not satisfied. The linear regression model revealed that age, sex, years in school, farm size, household size, farming experience, rice farming experience and tenure system significantly affect household’s food insecurity status. To transport from food insecure to food secure, age, sex, years in school, farm size, household size, farming experience, rice farming experience and tenure system alleviation policies are imperative.

Thai farmers’ perceptions on climate change: Evidence on durian farms in Surat Thani province

Rising temperatures, unpredictable rainfall patterns, and an increase in extreme weather events pose significant threats to agricultural productivity and food security. These conditions provide the glimpse of the future and smallholder farmers, who often lack access to resources and support, are particularly vulnerable. Among the crops cultivated in Thailand, durian stands out as a uniquely cherished commodity, predominantly cultivated by these vulnerable farmers and despite the significance of this crop, there remains a notable oversight in understanding the specific challenges and vulnerabilities faced by durian growers in the face of changing climatic conditions. The objective of this study was to investigate the perception of climate change and the adaptive capacity among durian farmers in Southern Thailand. A survey involving 80 durian farmers from Surat Thani province was conducted, and the data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and a binary logistic regression model. Findings found that 91.2 % of respondents acknowledged the impact of climate change, with 53.1 % opting to implement adaptation strategies. Factors such as lower education levels, limited farming experience, small farm sizes, and greater reliance on family labor significantly influenced the adoption of these strategies. Farmers achieving higher yields tended to adopt information and communication technologies (ICT), while smart farming technology (SFT) was more common among younger farmers and those with larger farms. This study indicates factors influencing adoption and a potential gap between awareness and action among durian farmers, highlighting the need for targeted interventions and support mechanisms to encourage and facilitate the implementation of adaptation measures.

Biosecurity practices in the dairy farms of southern Brazil.

Biosecurity refers to a set of practices that prevents and/or controls the introduction, spread, and elimination of harmful biological agents in a production system. In this study, we aimed to survey the biosecurity practices and determine their correlation with the size of production systems. A biosecurity assessment form was provided to 69 farms in the Campos Gerais region of Paraná, Brazil. The questionnaire was divided into two sections: general and bovine viral diarrhea virus- and bovine herpesvirus type-1-specific sections. The general section covered topics on traffic control, quarantine and animal isolation, hygiene practices, carcass disposal, and disease monitoring/control. The specific section consisted of questions on the reproductive and respiratory factors, use of antimicrobials, and vaccination schedule. The 69 farms were also classified into small (≤ 61), medium (62-201), and large (≥ 202) size farms based on the number of lactating cows. Moreover, multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) was performed between the biosecurity measures and farm size. The main risk factors and variability were related to the traffic control of people, animals, and vehicles/equipment, animal quarantine/isolation, and hygiene practices. MCA revealed that the small farms exhibited a lack of biosecurity measures, including those related to traffic control, animal quarantine, and hygiene. In medium-size farms, contact between bovine animals of different ages and difficulty in animal isolation in the quarantine system were among the main risk factors. In contrast, isolation of sick animals was easy, but the need to frequently purchase cattle was an important risk factor in large farms. These results highlight the relationship between biosecurity measures and farm size, providing valuable insights for the development of better biosecurity plans for production systems.

Resource-use-efficiency and Constraints Faced by the King Chilli Growers in Peren District of Nagaland

Background: The cultivating of King chilli has been practicing since long in Peren district of Nagaland; and registered under Geographical Indication Tag in the year 2006. So, the present study aimed to access the inputs used with maximum level of resource-use-efficiency tocontributethe output and highlight the major constraints faced by the King chilli growers. Methods: The present research investigation were carried out during the agricultural year 2020-21 with a total of 120 King chili growers; selected by following a multi-stage simple random quota sampling technique to access the impact. Result: The King chilli growers of marginal and small both farm size groups were found to be highly statistically significant at 1 per cent level; by ceteris paribus, the selected inputs were categorized viz; underutilized and over utilized with the available resources and further main constraints faced by the respondents were highlighted.

Analysis of Chainsaw Emissions during Chestnut Wood Operations and Their Health Implications

In Italy, the use of chainsaws for field operations such as Felling (FE), Delimbing (DE), and Bucking (BU) is widespread due to the topography, the medium–small size of farms, and the predominant presence of broad-leaved forests managed through coppicing. However, this has led to an increase in injuries and illnesses due to exposure to physical factors (e.g., noise, dust, and vibrations) and chemical agents (e.g., various volatile compounds). Occupational health and safety legislation in Italy has undergone several phases, including the approval of U.T. 81/2008. The present study aims to evaluate the noise generated by chainsaws and the concentration of pollutants (CO, VOC, and C6H6) present in chainsaw exhaust gases during interventions in a chestnut coppice in relation to the limits set by current legislation. The analysis of the noise generated by chainsaws during chestnut cutting operations showed that it exceeded the legal noise limits during all chainsaw activities, with peak levels of about 110 dB. The detected noise could cause important critical issues in relation to the health and safety of specialized operators. Furthermore, the correlation between the specific work (FE, DE, and BU) and the ratio between maximum and average values of CO and VOC emissions was evaluated. Notably, comparable levels of maximum VOC emissions were observed during the FE and BU phases. However, the average emission values during these phases exhibited significant differences, suggesting higher VOC production when the engine was running but not actively engaged in cutting. The highest emissions were recorded during the FE phase (CO = 135 ppm, VOC = 17.28 ppm, and C6H6 = 2.13 ppm).

Growth, yield and oil quality of adult pedestrian olive orchards grown at four different planting systems.

This study evaluated growth, yield and olive oil quality of mature pedestrian olive orchards. Trees of three Sicilian cultivars Calatina, Nocellara del Belice and Abunara were planted at four combinations of planting densities and training forms. Trees at 2 × 5m were trained to central leader (CLx2), those at 3 × 5m to free palmette (FPx3), those at 4 x 5 to globe vase (GVx4), and those at 5 x 5 to poly-conic vase (PVx5). 'Calatina' had the smallest trees in terms of trunk size in all growing systems, while canopy size of trees at higher densities was similar for all three cultivars. 'Calatina' was also the most growth efficient (m3 of canopy per cm2 of TCSA) and produced the least amount of pruning wood in the hedgerow systems (CLx2 and FPx3). Fruit yield per tree tended to be higher in more vigorous cultivars (Abunara and Nocellara) grown to 3D systems (GVx4 and PVx5), while 'Calatina' was the most yield efficient (kg of fruit per cm2 of TCSA) especially in the hedgerow growing systems. Fruit and oil yield per ha and average production value tended to be highest in CLx2 trees and lowest in GVx4 trees, with 'Calatina' showing the sharpest changes and 'Nocellara' the smallest changes among growing systems. According to the Jaen index, CLx2 tended to induce earlier fruit maturation, followed by PVx5, GVx4, and FPx3. The growing system did not affect oil fatty acid composition, while 'Calatina' had the highest amount of mono-unsaturated fatty acids and the lowest amount of saturated fatty acids. 'Abunara' oils exhibited the highest amount of total phenols in CLx2, while 'Calatina' and 'Nocellara' oils exhibited the highest amount in FPx3 and PVx5. Both, trans-2-hexenal ("cut grass" sensory note) and hexenyl acetate ("floral" sensory note) tended to be lowest in oils from trees grown at CLx2 and highest in those from trees grown at GVx4, showing a somewhat inverse relationship with fruit ripening degree. The outcome of the present study on mature pedestrian orchards shows that proper combinations of cultivars, planting densities, and training forms (canopy shape) may result in efficient intensive systems for growing olive in areas where super-high density systems cannot be profitable due to agronomic and environmental limitations (water shortage, steep sloping sites, small farm size, etc.). Pedestrian growing systems can also be used to exploit olive biodiversity by allowing the use of available local genotypes. For this reason, they may represent an effective and sustainable solution against unexpected climate changes and associated emerging diseases.

Measuring the Impact of Strategic Decisions on the Sustainability of Short Food Supply Chains – A Simulation-Based Approach

Short Food Supply Chains have logistics costs almost four times higher than the average of the agri-food sector [8]. And yet, the environmental impact of small-size farms involved in such initiatives is believed to be much better, with less input and less soil depletion. With the agricultural sector responsible for 26% of CO2 emissions, economically viable and environmentally friendly initiatives in this sector can have huge impacts in terms of climate change mitigation. This paper proposes a simulation-based approach, applied on an existing short food supply chain. The performance of the system is measured and analyzed in three dimensions: economic, environmental, and social, with qualitative discussions on their correlations. The framework of indicators proposed is based on a literature review of usual KPIs for Food Supply Chains. We adapted the set of indicators in order to evaluate the performance of the actual organization, and simulate the impact of three optimization possibilities, chosen based on local opportunities. Our results enable us to facilitate decision-making for the organization, by visualizing the impact of each strategic decision on sustainability. The outcomes of this research provide input for further studies investigating the logistical organization in SFSCs, helping these initiatives become a viable and sustainable alternative to conventional food systems. For this paper, we limited the study to past available data regarding demand and supply, and we also limited the scope of the supply chain to the producers, customers, and association.

An open-source machine-learning application for predicting pixel-to-pixel NDVI regression from RGB calibrated images

The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) is the most common index to measure vegetation in agriculture and create classified prescription maps used for several purposes. It is obtained as the ratio between information from the visible and near infrared spectral bands. The calculation of NDVI often uses very expensive hyperspectral and multispectral optical sensors. This study aims to develop an efficient model to extract NDVI data from RGB images. During the work were acquired images, of different plant species at different vegetation status, through a snapshot hyperspectral camera (Specim IQ) featuring natively superimposed RGB sensor whose images were calibrated a posteriori (sRGB). NDVI was predicted from sRGB images using a Shallow-regressive neural network that performs a pixel-pixel regression. The model has been then tested on around 1000 drone images acquired by a 6x Sentera sensor to test the efficiency of the applied model. The model has been used to estimate the numerical value of NDVI and the classes produced by a clustering method (k-means). The results of this work showed that the calibrated images had a very high correlation with the NDVI in validation (r = 0.91), maintaining good performances (r = 0.71) when applied to a set of data acquired with a different non-co-registered sensor. Therefore, for the first time this work has shown that the health of vegetation through the NDVI could be calculated using unexpensive RGB device adopting a pixel-pixel regression AI approach. The approach shows its importance especially for small-sized farms where profit would not allow for the budget to access multispectral cameras and heavy carriers (i.e., UAV).

The Women Farmer Stress Inventory: Examining women farmer stress in the United States Corn Belt.

While women identifying as primary farmers have increased in the United States, there has not been research focused on the antecedents of stress and quality of life among women farmers in particular. This study set out to construct a Women Farmer Stress Inventory (WFSI), test its dimensionality, and assess its criterion-related validity by looking at its relationship with subjective wellbeing as measured by the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS). We then examined sociodemographic and farm-level correlates to assess their relationship with stress. We utilized responses from a random sample of 592 Iowan women farmers who responded to a mailout survey that included the WFSI. We conducted exploratory factor analysis to identify the factorial structure of the WFSI, and used linear regression to evaluate how sociodemographic and farm-level characteristics were related to each factor. The analysis revealed 5 unique factors that reflected different aspects of women farmer stress: time pressures and workload, environmental concern, external stressors from governments and market, interpersonal relationships, and rural amenities. All factors except rural amenities had high levels of internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha >0.80) and were validated using the external criteria of SWLS measures. Young age, being married, and engagement in off-farm work, and smaller farm size were associated with greater levels of stress across most domains. The WFSI is a promising tool that shows high internal consistency and is validated with life satisfaction. Our study also finds certain sociodemographic and farm characteristics associated with different stress domains, which could inform both future research and community-based interventions.

Examination of Structural Characteristics and Biosecurity of Sheep Farms in Niğde Province

The aim was to examine the structural features and biosecurity practices of sheep farms operating in Niğde province. For this purpose, 75 farms operating in the region were classified according to size (number of animals) and production system (extensive and intensive) and, they were compared in terms of typology and biosafety. In this context, a face-to-face survey was conducted with the owners or authorized persons of the small, medium and large size farms and the data collected from the farms about technical, sanitation-hygiene and health protection were comparatively presented. According to the findings obtained from the study, manure and wastes produced in 24% of farms were seen randomly throwing into the environment, and the differences observed between farms depending on the farm size were found significant (P&lt;0.05). These farms can become a potential source of environmental and odor pollution. In addition, it was determined that disinfection was not applied to a large extent (97.30%) as a preventive measure at farm and shelter entrances (P&gt;0.05). At the end of the study, it has been concluded that the typology and biosafety practices could be an important support for future strategic programs against disease and other factors which affects the production of the Niğde region.