Small-scale Production Systems Research Articles

“Things are different now”: Farmer perceptions of cultural ecosystem services of traditional rice landscapes in Vietnam and the Philippines

Traditional rice production has shaped distinctive cultural landscapes in SE Asia. Rice cultivation is closely linked to socio-cultural values and has created specific agrobiodiversity. Increasing development pressures lead to an intensification of small-scale production systems and with this to changes of landscapes and associated ecosystems services. With a focus on cultural ecosystem services and along different land use gradients a qualitative assessment of farmer’s perceptions regarding cultural values of their landscapes was conducted. Interviews focused on traditional farming methods and the abundance of cultural values and perceptions that support the preservation of low-input, sustainable land management strategies. 73 indicators for Cultural Identity, Landscape Aesthetics, and Knowledge Systems were derived, revealing that socio-cultural structures and the socioeconomic situation of farmers influence their view on landscape-related cultural services. The qualitative approach of this research provides an important contribution to the field of ecosystem service assessments because these are the values people perceive based on culturally embedded and socially shaped preferences. For the implementation of ecological engineering, which is based on participation and on the belief into the natural resilience of ecosystems, the assessment of cultural ecosystem services provides important evidence in which areas this theoretical concept could find higher acceptance.

Prediction of Pig Trade Movements in Different European Production Systems Using Exponential Random Graph Models.

In most European countries, data regarding movements of live animals are routinely collected and can greatly aid predictive epidemic modeling. However, the use of complete movements’ dataset to conduct policy-relevant predictions has been so far limited by the massive amount of data that have to be processed (e.g., in intensive commercial systems) or the restricted availability of timely and updated records on animal movements (e.g., in areas where small-scale or extensive production is predominant). The aim of this study was to use exponential random graph models (ERGMs) to reproduce, understand, and predict pig trade networks in different European production systems. Three trade networks were built by aggregating movements of pig batches among premises (farms and trade operators) over 2011 in Bulgaria, Extremadura (Spain), and Côtes-d’Armor (France), where small-scale, extensive, and intensive pig production are predominant, respectively. Three ERGMs were fitted to each network with various demographic and geographic attributes of the nodes as well as six internal network configurations. Several statistical and graphical diagnostic methods were applied to assess the goodness of fit of the models. For all systems, both exogenous (attribute-based) and endogenous (network-based) processes appeared to govern the structure of pig trade network, and neither alone were capable of capturing all aspects of the network structure. Geographic mixing patterns strongly structured pig trade organization in the small-scale production system, whereas belonging to the same company or keeping pigs in the same housing system appeared to be key drivers of pig trade, in intensive and extensive production systems, respectively. Heterogeneous mixing between types of production also explained a part of network structure, whichever production system considered. Limited information is thus needed to capture most of the global structure of pig trade networks. Such findings will be useful to simplify trade networks analysis and better inform European policy makers on risk-based and more cost-effective prevention and control against swine diseases such as African swine fever, classical swine fever, or porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome.

Consumer preferences for sustainable aquaculture products: Evidence from in-depth interviews, think aloud protocols and choice experiments

Fish from aquaculture is becoming more important for human consumption. Sustainable aquaculture procedures were developed as an alternative to overcome the negative environmental impacts of conventional aquaculture procedures and wild fisheries. The objective of this contribution is to determine what consumers expect from sustainable aquaculture and whether they prefer sustainable aquaculture products. A combination of qualitative research methods, with think aloud protocols and in-depth interviews, as well as quantitative methods, using choice experiments and face-to-face interviews, was applied. Data was collected in three different cities of Germany. Results revealed that sustainable aquaculture was associated with natural, traditional, local, and small scale production systems with high animal welfare standards. Overall, participants paid a lot of attention to the declaration of origin; in particular fish products from Germany and Denmark were preferred along with local products. Frequently used sustainability claims for aquaculture products were mostly criticized as being imprecise by the participants of the qualitative study; even though two claims tested in the choice experiments had a significant positive impact on the choice of purchase. Similarly, existing aquaculture-specific labels for certified sustainable aquaculture had an impact on the buying decision, but were not well recognized and even less trusted. Overall, consumers had a positive attitude towards sustainable aquaculture. However, communication measures and labelling schemes should be improved to increase consumer acceptance and make a decisive impact on consumers' buying behavior.

Evaluación de bienestar de vacas lecheras en sistema de producción a pequeña escala aplicando el protocolo propuesto por Welfare Quality®

La información de bienestar animal (BA) en las unidades de producción (UP) de México es escasa, por lo que el objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar el grado de bienestar de vacas lecheras en producción, mediante la aplicación del protocolo europeo Welfare Quality® (WQ®) en cuatro municipios del estado de Hidalgo. Se evaluaron 1,187 vacas en producción, secas y vaquillas gestantes, distribuidas en 52 UP, seleccionadas por pertenecer al sistema familiar y participación voluntaria. En los formatos de WQ® se recabó la información por encuesta estructurada, medición de recursos y a partir de la observación animal, con ajustes a las condiciones del sistema de producción y respetando el orden y tiempo sugerido por el protocolo. En el análisis de la información se aplicaron los algoritmos de árbol de decisiones, suma ponderada y funciones I-Spline y la integral de Choquet. La clasificación final coloca a todas las UP como aceptables y corroborado en el simulador de WQ® en línea. La calificación en cada Principio (P) fue de 39 puntos para P1, 48 para P2, 23 en P3 y P4 con 28 puntos. Aun cuando el protocolo es una herramienta útil para la valoración del bienestar animal en el sistema de producción a pequeña escala del altiplano mexicano, la aplicabilidad no es total, por ello se hace necesario el desarrollo de protocolos propios, validados y probados científicamente que representen más fehacientemente la realidad del bienestar animal en este sistema.

Feasibility of a small-scale production system approach for palm sugar sweetened dark chocolate

Palm sugar is highly produced and patronised in the south-eastern part of Asia, e.g. Indonesia which is also the world’s third largest cocoa producer. Recently, interest in palm sugar sweetened chocolate and better approaches for production methods that can be easily applied in developing countries are rising. This work investigated the influence of palm sugar on the quality attributes of dark chocolate in terms of fineness, rheological behaviour and aroma profile compared to that of sucrose. Furthermore, a small-scale processing approach using the combination of Stephan mixer and ball mill compared to the conventional method was investigated. The results showed that palm sugar sweetened chocolate exhibited a higher viscosity, a higher particle volume fraction and a higher degree of particle agglomeration due to its relatively high moisture and presence of glucose and fructose. Furthermore, chocolates sweetened with palm sugar displayed a distinctive aroma profile with the abundant presence of 2,3-dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-4H-pyran-4-one and pyrazine-based compounds. Applying the alternative processing method leaded to the production of chocolate with rather high degree of agglomeration and viscosity as compared to chocolate produced by means of conventional processing. Moreover, the alternative processing method resulted in the presence of myrcene, β-trans-ocimene and isoamyl acetate which were not observed in the conventionally produced chocolates. The alternative processing method, however, seems to have potential for small-scale production of dark chocolate sweetened with palm sugar.

Dynamic Switching Mechanism to Support Self-organization in ADACOR Holonic Control System

Abstract: Evolvable control systems face the demands for modularity, decentralization, reconfigurabil-ity and responsiveness pointed out by the Industrie 4.0 initiative. In these systems, the self-organization model assumes a critical issue to ensure the correct evolution of the system structure into different operating configurations. ADACOR holonic manufacturing control architecture introduces an adaptive production control mechanism that balances between two states, combining the optimization provided by hierarchical structures with agility and responsiveness to condition changes offered by decentralized structures. This paper describes the switching mechanism that supports this dynamic balance and particularly the local and global driving forces for the self-organization model. The proposed model was experimentally tested in a small scale production system.

Determination of Production Efficiency of Crop Mixtures: the Relevance of the Agronomic Efficiency Method

Abstract The paper looks at estimation of the agronomic efficiency (AE) for various crop mixtures at varying levels of fertility management. To evaluate the concept, three trials using different cropping patterns and fertility rates were reviewed by calculating and comparing the relative yield and agronomic efficiency of the main crop. AE was higher in the mixtures compared to the sole crop in all the trials, and in the mixtures while efficiency between the control and the fertility levels employed were high, those between the fertility levels were not as high and increased at a reducing rate, sometimes tending to be constant. These responses gave rise to situations similar to a quadratic response and could therefore permit for optimum fertility levels for crop mixtures to be predicted. This therefore means that sustainable intensification is possible under small scale production systems as increase in efficiency was higher at lower fertilizer rates compared to the higher rates. Assessment of AE for crop mixture could also result in staggered recommended production practices, thus discouraging the excessive use of fertilizers – chemical or organic – and cut cost of production, reduce the pollution of the environment with its attendant consequences while production costs could be within reach of the small scale farmers. Small scale family farmers seeking alternative methods of soil fertility management could be encouraged to undertake the clipping/thinning management of companion leguminous crops as such measures could enhance their productivity as the estimation of AE has shown in these investigations. The practice of either clipping or thinning of the leguminous companion crop is similar or close to current production practices employed by these farmers and therefore should not be difficult to adapt and adopt.

Catalytic properties of pure Ni honeycomb catalysts for methane steam reforming

Honeycomb catalysts were assembled, using only 30μm-thick Ni foils, to develop genuine monolithic catalysts for hydrogen production via methane steam reforming. A high cell density (900 cpsi) and geometric surface area (59.4cm2/cm3) were achieved on the honeycomb catalyst. The catalyst exhibited high CH4 conversion (over 97%) at 1073K for a long period of up to 8321.1h under low steam-to-carbon ratio (1.34) and space velocity (335h−1) conditions. A H2 production rate of 74.2ml/min was achieved, and carbon deposition was hardly detected in spite of the low steam-to-carbon ratio. The catalyst was gradually deactivated due to the oxidation of Ni, but was repeatedly regenerated by reduction in flowing hydrogen. These findings proved the high potential of the Ni honeycomb catalyst for application to a small-scale hydrogen production system. Monitoring the temperature profile along the axial direction showed good heat transfer between the catalyst and the surrounding gas, which was attributed to the high thermal conductivity of Ni and to the high cell density of the catalyst. The high geometric surface area and good heat transfer are considered responsible for the good performance of the catalyst.

Economic analysis of cobia (Rachycentron canadum) cage culture in large- and small-scale production systems in Brazil

Economic feasibility studies regarding aquaculture systems are relatively scarce, but they are important to potential investors and for the allocation of resources for research and technological development. This study evaluated the economic viability of cobia cage culture from the actual investment and operational costs of a large-scale operation off Recife, northeastern Brazil (industrial system; IS), and a family-run farm located in a near-shore area of Rio de Janeiro (familiar system; FS). The IS had twenty-four 1607 m3 floating cages deployed at a depth of 24 m, while the FS had six 75 m3 wooden cages installed in a sheltered 6- to 7-m-deep area. Analyses of profitability (gross revenue, operational profit, cost price and break-even production) and investment (net present value—NPV; and payback time) were performed. An analysis of sensitivity was also carried out. The IS required an initial investment of approximately US$ 1.5 million dollars and was more sensitive to FCR, selling price and productivity fluctuations than the FS. The FS required a relatively small initial investment (US$ 16,000 dollars), which makes it more flexible to variations in production parameters and market fluctuations. The NPV was positive for both systems, and the payback times were estimated to be 3.88 years for the IS and 2.07 years for the FS. Therefore, given the assumptions of this study, cage culture of cobia in Brazil may be considered economically feasible in offshore production systems and in near-shore, FSs. Governmental support through decreased import taxes is recommended as a way to accelerate the early development of the cage culture of marine fish in Brazil.

Living mulch cover crops for weed control in small-scale applications

AbstractA primary challenge of managing vegetable production on a small land base is the maintenance and building of soil quality. Previous studies have demonstrated the benefits of cover crops for improved soil quality; however, small growers struggle to fit cover crops into rotations. Small-scale growers with limited available land are under significant pressure to maximize their saleable yield and often work to maximize output by using intensive cropping practices that may include both early and late season crops, thus limiting the typical shoulder season windows in which cover crops can be grown. In-season living mulches may be an effective strategy to provide small-scale growers the benefits of cover crops with less land commitment than cover crops used in typical rotations. However, research on living mulches is generally not suited to small-scale organic production systems due to the typical reliance on chemical herbicide to suppress mulches. An experiment was designed with the goal of evaluating living mulch systems for space-limited organic vegetable production. In a 2-year study, four living mulch crops (buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), field pea (Pisum sativum), crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum) and medium red clover (Trifolium pratense)) and a cultivated control with no mulch cover were planted in early spring each year. Snap beans (Phaseolus vulgarisvar. Tavera), transplanted bell peppers (Capsicum annuumvar. Revolution), and transplanted fall broccoli (Brassica oleraceavar. Imperial) were then planted directly into living mulches. During each summer growing season, living mulches and weeds were mown between-rows and hand-weeded in-row approximately every 10–14 days as needed for management. Labor times for mowing and cultivation were found to be higher in all treatments relative to the cultivated control. An inverse relationship between living mulch biomass and weed biomass was observed, demonstrating that living mulches may contribute to weed suppression. However, lower vegetable yields were seen in the living mulch treatments, most likely due to resource competition among vegetables, living mulches and weeds. High pre-existing weed seedbank and drought conditions likely increased competition and contributed to reduced vegetable yield.

Effectiveness factor correlations for spherical nickel catalyst pellets used in small-scale steam methane reformers

A simple method is devised for determining the effectiveness factors of spherical nickel catalyst pellets used for steam methane reforming (SMR) processes; specifically, the factors are determined for reforming conditions relevant to small-scale hydrogen production systems (1–3 bar pressure, 600–800 °C temperature, 2–4 steam/carbon ratio). The effectiveness factors are plotted with respect to a newly proposed effective Thiele modulus that considers the mass transfer limitation near the equilibrium methane conversion. Then, a modified Thiele modulus is introduced to make the effectiveness factors for various reforming conditions and structural parameters fall on a single correlation curve. The results indicate that the proposed method can properly describe the effectiveness factors of nickel catalyst pellets for the SMR conditions considered in this study.

From phenotyping towards breeding strategies: using in vivo indicator traits and genetic markers to improve meat quality in an endangered pig breed

In endangered and local pig breeds of small population sizes, production has to focus on alternative niche markets with an emphasis on specific product and meat quality traits to achieve economic competiveness. For designing breeding strategies on meat quality, an adequate performance testing scheme focussing on phenotyped selection candidates is required. For the endangered German pig breed ‘Bunte Bentheimer’ (BB), no breeding program has been designed until now, and no performance testing scheme has been implemented. For local breeds, mainly reared in small-scale production systems, a performance test based on in vivo indicator traits might be a promising alternative in order to increase genetic gain for meat quality traits. Hence, the main objective of this study was to design and evaluate breeding strategies for the improvement of meat quality within the BB breed using in vivo indicator traits and genetic markers. The in vivo indicator trait was backfat thickness measured by ultrasound (BFiv), and genetic markers were allele variants at the ryanodine receptor 1 (RYR1) locus. In total, 1116 records of production and meat quality traits were collected, including 613 in vivo ultrasound measurements and 713 carcass and meat quality records. Additionally, 700 pigs were genotyped at the RYR1 locus. Data were used (1) to estimate genetic (co)variance components for production and meat quality traits, (2) to estimate allele substitution effects at the RYR1 locus using a selective genotyping approach and (3) to evaluate breeding strategies on meat quality by combining results from quantitative-genetic and molecular-genetic approaches. Heritability for the production trait BFiv was 0.27, and 0.48 for backfat thickness measured on carcass. Estimated heritabilities for meat quality traits ranged from 0.14 for meat brightness to 0.78 for the intramuscular fat content (IMF). Genetic correlations between BFiv and IMF were higher than estimates based on carcass backfat measurements (0.39 v. 0.25). The presence of the unfavorable n allele was associated with increased electric conductivity, paler meat and higher drip loss. The allele substitution effect on IMF was unfavorable, indicating lower IMF when the n allele is present. A breeding strategy including the phenotype (BFiv) combined with genetic marker information at the RYR1 locus from the selection candidate, resulted in a 20% increase in accuracy and selection response when compared with a breeding strategy without genetic marker information.

The burden and spatial distribution of bovine African trypanosomes in small holder crop-livestock production systems in Tororo District, south-eastern Uganda.

BackgroundAfrican animal trypanosomiasis (AAT) is considered to be one of the greatest constraints to livestock production and livestock-crop integration in most African countries. South-eastern Uganda has suffered for more than two decades from outbreaks of zoonotic Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT), adding to the burden faced by communities from AAT. There is insufficient AAT and HAT data available (in the animal reservoir) to guide and prioritize AAT control programs that has been generated using contemporary, sensitive and specific molecular techniques. This study was undertaken to evaluate the burden that AAT presents to the small-scale cattle production systems in south-eastern Uganda.MethodsRandomised cluster sampling was used to select 14% (57/401) of all cattle containing villages across Tororo District. Blood samples were taken from all cattle in the selected villages between September-December 2011; preserved on FTA cards and analysed for different trypanosomes using a suite of molecular techniques. Generalized estimating equation and Rogen-Gladen estimator models were used to calculate apparent and true prevalences of different trypanosomes while intra cluster correlations were estimated using a 1-way mixed effect analysis of variance (ANOVA) in R statistical software version 3.0.2.ResultsThe prevalence of all trypanosome species in cattle was 15.3% (95% CI; 12.2-19.1) while herd level trypanosome species prevalence varied greatly between 0-43%. Trypanosoma vivax (17.4%, 95% CI; 10.6-16.8) and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense (0.03%) were respectively, the most, and least prevalent trypanosome species identified.ConclusionsThe prevalence of bovine trypanosomes in this study indicates that AAT remains a significant constraint to livestock health and livestock production. There is need to implement tsetse and trypanosomiasis control efforts across Tororo District by employing effective, cheap and sustainable tsetse and trypanosomiasis control methods that could be integrated in the control of other endemic vector borne diseases like tick-borne diseases.

Study on major causes of chicken mortality and associated risk factors in Bahir Dar Zuria District, Ethiopia

A cross sectional study was conducted to assess major causes of chicken mortality and associated risk factors from November 2013 to May 2014 in Bahir Dar Zuria District, Ethiopia. One hundred respondents were selected using simple random sampling technique. Data collected using questionnaire survey and from laboratory investigation of parasites were analyzed using STATA version 11. Among all respondents, 63 and 37% of the respondent used extensive/backyard and small-scale intensive poultry production systems, respectively. All respondents provided housing for their chicken under small-scale intensive system, while 96.8% provided housing under extensive production system. All small-scale intensive producers and 88.8% of extensive producers practiced house cleaning practices. About 56 and 5% of the respondents provided water as free accesses in small scale intensive and extensive production systems, respectively. Provision of commercial feed was practiced only by small scale intensive poultry producers. Presence of diseases, feed shortage, predators and bad weather condition/extreme weather condition/ were identified as the major causes of chicken mortality. Among diseases Newcastle diseases, Infectious bursal diseases and coccidiosis were cited in their order of importance. Among 69 fecal samples collected 44 (69.84%) were positive for nematodes, cestode and protozoal parasites. High mortality rates were recorded in both production systems. A 50% under extensive and 36% under small-scale intensive production systems, poultry producers dispose dead birds due to different diseases by throwing elsewhere near the farm/backyard area. Among all respondents, 24% vaccinated their chicken, whereas 76% did not practice vaccination to common diseases. Thus, poultry improvement program in the area should focus on minimizing and ultimately avoiding constraints of poultry sector to see the required performance at the expected level. Key words: Chicken mortality, production systems and management practices.

Acetification of rice wine by Acetobacter aceti using loofa sponge in a low-cost reciprocating shaker.

To maximize acetification rate (ETA) by adsorption of acetic acid bacteria (AAB) on loofa sponge matrices (LSM). AAB were adsorbed on LSM, and the optimal shaking rate was determined for maximized AAB growth and oxygen availability. Results confirm that the 1 Hz reciprocating shaking rate with 40% working volume (liquid volume 24 l, tank volume 60 l) achieved a high oxygen transfer coefficient (k(L)a). The highest ETA was obtained at 50% (w:v) LSM-AAB:culture medium at 30 ± 2°C (P ≤ 0·05). To test process consistency, nine sequential acetification cycles were run using LSM-AAB and comparing it with no LSM. The highest ETA (1·701-2·401 g l(-1) d(-1)) was with LSM-AAB and was associated with the highest biomass of AAB, confirmed by SEM images. Results confirm that LSM-AAB works well as an inert substrate for AAB. High oxygenation was maintained by a reciprocating shaker. Both shaking and LSM were important in increasing ETA. High cell biomass in LSM-AAB provides good conditions for higher ETAs of quick acetification under adequate oxygen transfer by reciprocating shaker. It is a sustainable process for small-scale vinegar production system requiring minimal set-up cost.

Small-Scale Biodiesel Production:A Case Study of On-Farm Economics

<abstract> <bold><sc>Abstract. </sc></bold>Recently, farmers have become interested in growing alternative crops for the production of biofuels such as biodiesel. Using small-scale cold presses and conversion systems to offset variable diesel fuel prices, biodiesel could be produced on-farm. Research is limited on the economics of on-farm biodiesel production. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to 1) assess economics of a current small-scale biodiesel production system and 2) use the data collected to develop a prediction model for a small-scale, on-farm biodiesel production system scenario. Auburn University Biosystems Engineering Department’s biodiesel production system utilizes all waste vegetable oils (WVO) from dining facilities on campus, totaling 3,300 gal yr^-1. Biodiesel is produced for approximately $2.21 gal^-1 ($0.58 L^-1) using base catalyzed transesterification techniques and one dedicated technician. Process data from 2010 was extrapolated to an on-farm scenario with estimates made for oilseed processing techniques and yield based on previous studies. Opportunity costs of oilseeds were assessed as well as current soyhull pellet prices. Ultimately, a decision assistance tool was developed for use by farmers. This model allows farmers to input basic variables to determine if producing biodiesel or selling crops is most profitable. Model outputs included total biodiesel and meal yields, meal value, WVO transportation cost, oilseed extrusion cost, biodiesel production cost, and operating costs. Simulations indicated that in 2010 soybean biodiesel resulted in the highest cost of production which was inversely proportional to soybean acreage. Canola followed closely, but WVO was the least expensive in terms of production cost as an essentially free feedstock with only transportation and process cost added. Biodiesel production cost fluctuated heavily with commodity market pricing. Model results revealed that by producing biodiesel with the 2010 soybean crop, farmers could have reduced losses by $10.00 acre^-1. While this system would not give farmers strong economic advantage, it is feasible and has the potential to reduce losses.

Simulating the effect of climate on star grass growth and quality and its capacity to support milk production in the tropical regions of Mexico

The objective of the present study was to simulate the effect of the seasonal variation of climate on the nutritional value and dry matter yield of star grass and its capacity to support milk production alone or with concentrate supplementation in small-scale milk production systems in the tropical regions of Mexico. Two mathematical simulation models were used, the first model simulates the growth and yield of star grass (Cynodon plectostachyus), and the second model simulates the productive performance of dairy cows. Both models were integrated in a decision-making support system (DSSTROP). Model's predictions were validated by a calibration exercise for each data set from three experiments on the effect of concentrate supplementation on milk yield. The DSSTROP predictions and the results from the experiments were compared by regression analysis. The results suggest that the DSSTROP adequately predicts milk production (R2=0.74). The DSSTROP predictions suggest that milk production based solely on star grass may occur only between June to August. The highest milk yield (8.5kg cow-1 day-1) sustained solely on grass was achieved in June, followed by lower yields of &lt;5kg cow-1 day-1 in July and August. Milk production without concentrates can be explained by the positive effects of the rain observed during June to August on grass growth, and to the fact that grass quality is best at the beginning of the rainy season. It is concluded that June to August is the best time of the year for milk production base solely on grass. It also was concluded that the use of large quantities of concentrates by farmers may be justified because milk production with star grass alone may not be possible especially during the dry season.

Analytical evaluation of the output variability in production systems with general Markovian structure

Performance evaluation models are used by companies to design, adapt, manage and control their production systems. In the literature, most of the effort has been dedicated to the development of efficient methodologies to estimate the first moment performance measures of production systems, such as the expected production rate, the buffer levels and the mean completion time. However, there is industrial evidence that the variability of the production output may drastically impact on the capability of managing the system operations, causing the observed system performance to be highly different from what expected. This paper presents a general methodology to analyze the variability of the output of unreliable single machines and small-scale multi-stage production systems modeled as General Markovian structure. The generality of the approach allows modeling and studying performance measures such as the variance of the cumulated output and the variance of the inter-departure time under many system configurations within a unique framework. The proposed method is based on the characterization of the autocorrelation structure of the system output. The impact of different system parameters on the output variability is investigated and characterized. Moreover, managerial actions that allow reducing the output variability are identified. The computational complexity of the method is studied on an extensive set of computer experiments. Finally, the limits of this approach while studying long multi-stage production lines are highlighted.

Effect of organic and mineral fertilization on proximate composition of three leafy vegetables harvested at different periods

Leafy vegetables are part of natural resources traditionally harvested from forests in Benin. Some of these wild plants foods have been introduced in the small scale production system. The low productivity and the increasing demand for such products urged to use fertilizers. However, the impact of such practices on the nutritional properties of these leaves was poorly documented. In this study Sesamum radiatum, Ceratotheca sesamoides and Justicia tenella were cultivated using NPK, cowpat and mixture of NPK plus cowpat. Leaves harvested at 6, 9, 10, 12 or 14 weeks after transplanting were analyzed for proximate composition. Protein content ranged from 17.2 to 33.8 g/100 g DW; ash from 7.7 to 20.4 g/100 g; fat from 1.2 to 7.3 g/100 g, fiber from 5.6 to 13.1 g/100 g and polyphenols content from 0.24 to 1.33 g GAE/100 g (DW). Significant effects of species, fertilizer and cutting time were evidenced. Whereas ash content increased by 1 to 25.8% ratio in fertilized S. radiatum leaves, it showed a downward trend (-1 to -22%) during the two first cutting times of C. sesamoides followed by an upward trend (12.7 to 14.3%) at the last cutting time, in comparison to the non fertilized leaves. © 2013 International Formulae Group. All rights reserved. Keywords: Fertilization, composition, Sesamum radiatum , Ceratotheca sesamoides, Justicia tenella

From large to small: Reorienting rural development policies in response to climate change, food security and poverty

Discourses regarding the development of the Amazon region highlight the importance of the local cultures, local knowledge and participation of smallholders, such as indigenous people, traditional communities and small-scale colonists. Current policies, however, still pursue a development model that is oriented towards global commodity markets and the capacity of well-qualified entrepreneurs with the capital required for large-scale investments, despite a growing consensus on its ecological incompatibilities, social limitations and economic risks. Decision makers from both governmental and non-governmental organisations widely disregard the possibility that smallholders could more actively contribute to rural development. Instead, the production practices of smallholders and their modes of social organisation are perceived as obsolete and inefficient. By presenting examples from the region, this paper argues that smallholders have the potential to manage production systems that maintain environmental stability while effectively contributing to local well-being. Therefore, the paper advocates to more effectively using local capacities for the development of rural Amazon through the promotion of small-scale production systems.