Small-scale Mining Research Articles

Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Practices and Associated Health Risks for Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining at Stamico, Nsangano, and A.S. Lulila Mine Sites in Tanzania

Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Practices and Associated Health Risks for Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining at Stamico, Nsangano, and A.S. Lulila Mine Sites in Tanzania

Interface between artisanal and small-scale mining and cocoa farming in the Wassa Amenfi East and West Districts of Ghana

The study examined the interface between artisanal and small-scale mining and cocoa farming in the Wassa Amenfi East and West District of Ghana. A sample of 758 cocoa farmers were randomly sampled from fourteen communities in the study districts. Formal institutions mandated to oversee mining activities in Ghana were purposively sampled. Quantitative data were collected using an interview schedule and analysed using descriptive statistics, binary logistic regression and complemented with narratives from key informant interviews. Land ownership in the study communities were primarily allodial and vested in traditional stools, clans, families, and individuals. The most widely used modes of land acquisition were outright purchase, partnership, and lease. Generally, miners resorted to informal agreements to acquire lands due to cumbersome legal processes which deter prospective miners from acquiring land through legal means. The odds to dispose of cocoa farms were significantly higher for migrants and married farmers and those with access to alternative livelihoods, and high well-being. We recommend to institutions mandated to issue mining licences to make the processes less cumbersome and institutionalise informal land acquisition at the community level since most prospective miners prefer to secure land from informal sources.

Comparative analysis between mercury levels in fish tissues evaluated using direct mercury analyzer and inductively plasma-coupled mass spectrometer

Recent ecotoxicological studies have indicated mercury (Hg) contamination in aquatic ecosystems in the Amazon Basin. Although Hg contamination can be associated with small-scale gold mining, the soils of the Amazon region have naturally high Hg concentrations, and can be transported to aquatic ecosystems via deforestation and mining activities. Biomagnification of Hg can pose risks to the local human population; therefore, its concentration in fish tissues must be monitored consistently. Fast and sensitive Hg determination is required for continuously monitoring ecosystems impacted by mineral exploration. The direct mercury analyzer (DMA-80) is widely used for determining total Hg levels in tissue samples; it is fast and cost-effective, without requiring sample preparation. Here, we determined the sensitivity and specificity of Hg detection accomplished using DMA-80, and whether these results are reliable compared to those obtained using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer (ICP-MS), which is the gold standard. We obtained 106 paired dried samples of muscle tissue from fish species occupying different trophic levels in the Lower Amazon region, and analyzed them using both equipment (DMA-80 and ICP-MS). The results obtained using DMA-80 had an overall Hg mean of 1.90 ± 0.18 mg/kg which was higher (p < 0.05) than the mean of those obtained using ICP-MS (1.55 ± 0.13 mg/kg). Linear regression analysis comparing the Hg levels obtained using both devices was within the 95% prediction interval, and a high coefficient of correlation showed agreement between the devices (r = 0.979; 0.069 to 0.986, 95% CI). Bland-Altman analysis showed that DMA-80 had a positive bias of 6.5% in relation to ICP-MS, which is more evident in samples with high Hg concentrations. DMA-80 was efficient in determining whether the Hg levels exceeded the maximum allowed levels required by the European Union, USA, and Brazil, showing a specificity and sensitivity of above 95%.

Health Screening Strategies for Artisanal and Small-Scale Miners for Tuberculosis, Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Silicosis: A Case of the USAID-Supported Kunda Nqob'iTB Project in Zimbabwe.

Artisanal and small-scale mining is characterized by excessive exposure to physical, chemical, ergonomic, psychosocial and biological hazards. There is a high burden of tuberculosis (TB), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections and silicosis among artisanal and small-scale miners (ASMs). The aim of this project report is to describe lessons learned from strategies implemented to reach ASMs with screening services for TB, HIV and silicosis in Zimbabwe through the Kunda-Nqob'i TB (KNTB) project supported by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The intervention package for screening ASMs for TB, HIV and silicosis included service provision through two occupational health clinics at two provincial hospitals and a mobile workplace-based screening (WBS) facility at the mining sites. From 1 October 2020 to 30 September 2023, 10,668 ASMs were screened, with a high number of cases of silicosis (21%) and TB (7.4%). There was a high burden of HIV (30%) in ASMs attending the occupational health clinics. The two occupational health clinics screened 3453 ASMs, while the mobile WBS activities screened 7215 ASMs during the period. A total of 370 healthcare workers (doctors/clinical officers, nurses, environmental health technicians and district tuberculosis and Leprosy control officers) were trained on TB and the fundamental diagnostic principles of silicosis. The KNTB project has been successful in reaching out to many ASMs operating in remote and hard-to-reach mining areas. The KNTB project has brought to light the positive health-seeking behavior of ASMs operating in remote areas. The project has brought to the fore the effectiveness of multi-stakeholder engagement and collaboration in reaching out to ASMs in remote areas with health screening services. There is a high burden of TB, HIV and silicosis in ASMs. Screening for TB, HIV and silicosis using workplace-based screening and occupational health clinics is an effective strategy and should be rolled out to all areas with high artisanal and small-scale mining activity.

Training-of-trainers program for community health workers involved in an innovative and community-based intervention against malaria among goldminers in the Guiana shield: a quality and effectiveness evaluation.

An innovative and community-based intervention is implemented in the Guiana Shield to eliminate malaria among people involved in artisanal and small-scale gold mining. The intervention consists of the distribution of malaria self-management kits to goldminers and the presumptive treatment for individuals at risk of carrying Plasmodium vivax hypnozoites. The intervention is possible owing to community health workers (CHWs) who are previously trained to master all intervention procedures, including health education activities and goldmining training. This study aimed to evaluate the training program provided to CHWs in terms of quality and effectiveness. A training-of-trainers program for CHWs has been developed based on the CDC framework. A mixed-method case study was implemented in two steps between February and March 2023. The evaluation was based on a knowledge survey, satisfaction test, observations, and semi-structured interviews. Quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed and triangulated. A total of 20 CHWs participated in the training and the first-step evaluation. For the second step, four semi-structured interviews were conducted. The Qualitative data showed that group dynamics and adaptations were central elements of a high-quality training program. Quantitative analysis found that CHWs' satisfaction was elevated (> 4/5 overall), especially regarding format and learning results. Improvements in knowledge level demonstrated good effectiveness (pre-training vs. post-training, p < 0.05). Nevertheless, some difficulties persisted regarding tasks of the intervention procedure, such as informed consent and smartphone application procedures (with an inaccuracy rate of 29.2% and 16.7%, respectively). Further on-the-job training permitted to address these issues. The project team's previous experience and the Guiana Shield countries' commitment to the WHO-E-2025-initiative were identified as levers for the quality of the training, while the complexity of the project context was a challenge. High-quality, effective, and appropriate training programs are required for effective and sustainable interventions involving CHW profiles. Training design is a crucial point to address to accomplish quality and effectiveness. The training-of-trainers model has been shown to allow a high level of satisfaction, good learning results, and satisfactory implementation in the field. Initial and continuing training is an indispensable continuum to sustain good practices in the field and CHWs' motivation. Training evaluation permits standardizing methods and facilitates transferability.

Contribution to a Sustainable Society: Biosorption of Precious Metals Using the Microalga Galdieria.

The red microalga Galdieria sp. is an extremophile that inhabits acidic hot sulphur springs and grows heterotrophically to a high cell density. These characteristics make Galdieria suitable for commercial applications as stable mass production is the key to success in the algae business. Galdieria has great potential as a precious metal adsorbent to provide a sustainable, efficient and environmentally benign method for urban mining and artisanal small-scale gold mining. The efficiency and selectivity in capturing precious metals, gold and palladium from metal solutions by a Galdieria-derived adsorbent was assessed relative to commercially used adsorbents, ion exchange resin and activated charcoal. As it is only the surface of Galdieria cells that affect metal adsorption, the cell content was analysed to determine the manner of utilisation of those metabolites. Galdieria was shown to be protein-rich and contain beneficial metabolites, the levels of which could shift depending on the growth conditions. Separating the cell content from the adsorbent could improve the adsorption efficiency and reduce CO2 emissions during the metal collection process. The commercial applications of Galdieria appear promising: growth is quick and dense; the precious metal adsorption capacity is highly efficient and selective in acidic conditions, especially at low metal concentrations; and the cell content is nutrient-rich.

A responsible mining approach to the economic modeling of small-scale gold mining

Artisanal mining, known as “garimpo” in Brazil, is a legal activity predicted in the Brazilian mining code. However, society's concern over the sustainable development of the Amazon rainforest and media coverage of illegal gold extraction have had the effect of marginalizing and condemning the sector as a whole. Known in the international literature as small-scale and artisanal gold mining (ASGM), this sector involves millions of miners across the world and hundreds of thousands in Brazil, who make a living from it, feed their families, and foster local economies. However, ASGM miners use techniques and operating procedures that, if not controlled, mitigated and eventually replaced, could lead to significant social and environmental impacts. There are growing concerns over ASGM activities, and buyers, investors, and industrial sectors are willing to pay more for a product created in a responsible manner. However, questions remain as to how much the transition to a responsible operation would cost, and whether buyers would really be willing to pay for it. This research presents a proposal for the economic modeling of ASGM operations based on immersive work in three cooperatives of legal ASGM miners in Brazil. The proposed approach considers the SDGs (United Nations Sustainable Development Goals) of the 2030 agenda, as applied to small-scale mining, and the corresponding actions that are needed, based on a detailed survey of the costs of the analyzed operations, with the aim of guiding small-scale mining activities towards greater responsibility and sustainability. In the proposed model, the average profit obtained from mining operations is guaranteed and the size of the bonus reverts to the responsible areas surveyed. A financial analysis based on our responsible model, which was developed for the cash flow for a hypothetical operation over 10 years, yields an IRR of 54 % and a payback of 2.54 years, thus demonstrating its economic viability.

Determination of mercury in soil and water from a gold mining area in Karang Jaya Sub-district, Musi Rawas Utara, Indonesia

The present study focuses on the assessment of Hg distribution in both soil and water samples from the small-scale gold mining region of Karang Jaya Sub-district, Musi Rawas Utara Regency, South Sumatra Province. For over 30 years, this region has witnessed persistent utilization of mercury as an amalgam for gold extraction. The investigation encompasses an analysis of total mercury levels in soil samples obtained from Sukamenang, Muara Batang Empu, and Terusan Villages. As a comparative reference point devoid of gold mining activities, the neighboring Muara Lakitan Village was selected. The obtained results indicate a moderate to strong contamination level across the 30 sampled locations based on the Geoaccumulation Index (Igeo), with an average Igeo value of 2.6. Furthermore, Pollution Load Index (PLI) and Contamination Factor (CF) values demonstrate high contamination. Conversely, analysis of river water samples from 30 stations along the Rupit River reveals that most of the samples comply with quality standards (&lt;0.0005 mg/L), with an average value at 0.000322 mg/L; only four stations exhibit total Hg concentrations surpassing regulatory thresholds. All soil and river water samples from the control area (10 stations) exhibited no signs of pollution. Appropriate investments in technology, finance, and technical skills are needed to reduce mercury pollution due to small-scale gold mining activities.

Rethinking small-scale gold mining in Ghana: A holy grail for environmental stewardship and sustainability

Ghana is fast losing its ecological health to illegal gold mining (IGM), since the last two decades. Aside the dearth and paucity of studies on IGM, prior literature on IGM have largely concentrated on unidimensional methods at the neglect of multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM). Against this backdrop, the present study aims to address the yawning gap in literature using the novel MCDM hybrid LDA-PSI-TOPSIS. Accordingly, a thorough search was done in notable databases including ScienceDirect, Scopus and Web of Science, using linguistic terms ((such as “barriers” OR “drivers” OR “challenges” OR “causes” OR “impediment” OR” “enablers” OR “strategies”) AND (“illegal mining” OR “illegal small-scale gold mining”)), to obtain the barriers to eradicate IGM, and the corresponding strategies to overcome these barriers. Overall, 5 main barriers, 26 sub-barriers, and eights strategies were identified. Subsequently, the barriers and the strategies were ranked by 20 experts from academia and industry based on the framework of the study. The study's findings reveal a hierarchical arrangement of the main barriers to IGM eradication, with the following order: socioeconomic barriers (44%), governance barriers (20%), weak institutional and cultural barriers (17%), regulatory barriers (15%), and equipment/foreign miners barriers (4%). Furthermore, the eight strategies for IGM eradication were systematically ranked as follows: alternative livelihood and improved formalization; moral economy, anti-corruption campaign, and cultural reprogramming; community engagement; improved governance structures and public service; autonomy for judicial and auxiliary services; monitoring and surveillance; economic sanctions (naming-and-shaming); and international cooperation. From a managerial perspective, the study proposes an innovative blend of top-down and bottom-up strategies to catalyze success in the fight against illegal mining, taking into account the financial resources of the country.

Opportunity and Side Effects of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining in Nigeria

Opportunity and Side Effects of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining in Nigeria

Small-Scale Mining and Academic Performance of Ghanaian Students at the Basic Level

Small-Scale Mining and Academic Performance of Ghanaian Students at the Basic Level

Mercury removal by Aquarius palifolius (Nees & Mart.) Christenh. & Byng: Isotherms model, superoxide dismutase activity, and chlorophyll content

Mercury is one of the heavy metals that became a global threat in this industrialization era. Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining activities are the leading cause of this mercury pollution. Sustainable and environmentally friendly methods can be a solution to overcome this problem. Bioremediation methods use plants with defense mechanisms against mercury, namely Mexican sword plants or Aquarius palifolius, which is a promising solution. This research aimed to analyze the isotherm model of mercury content in A. palifolius in the Free Water Surface-Constructed Wetland (FWS-CW) reactor using the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm equations; analyzed the activity of antioxidant enzymes in A. palifolius such as Superoxide dismutase (SOD); and also analyzed the effect of mercury stress on chlorophyll levels in A. palifolius. This research shows that the mercury phytoremediation process by A. palifolius is more suitable with the Langmuir isotherm model. There are no significant differences in SOD activity and chlorophyll levels between A. palifolius with and without mercury concentration. This indicates that A. palifolius is a hyperaccumulator plant that can survive in mercury stress conditions and even remove mercury from contaminated water.

Investigating of mining accidents involving trapped mine workers: A human factors-based method for analysis and classification (a case study of an illegal gold mining in banyumas, indonesia)

The number of illegal mining sites in Indonesia is estimated to be around 2.700, with the number of mining accidents reaching 104 in the period 2013-2021. The number of accidents is high and often causes fatalities. This research focuses on reactivating illegal mining in Pancurendang as a source of livelihood for the local community. We focused on analyzing the causes of the trapping of 8 miners in Pancurendang Mine. It revealed more than 110 mining pits, with 30 active mining pits in the mine. The methodology we used was the Human Factor Analysis Classification System (HFACS) framework to process the data. Data collection was conducted by direct observation at the incident site, interviews with miners and the national rescue agency, as well as a comprehensive literature review. Improvements were proposed in a hierarchical analysis based on the HFACS Framework. The analysis showed that the incident was caused by several factors, such as skill-based error, physical environment, absence of supervisor, organizational physics and societal. The results of this study highlight the need for the development of professional mine organizations, safer working environments and responsibility for safety in small-scale gold mining, and provide valuable insights in the development of geotechnical engineering.

Field method for preservation of total mercury in waters, including those associated with artisanal scale gold mining.

Analysis of mercury (Hg) in natural water samples has routinely been impractical in many environments, for example, artisanal and small-scale gold mines (ASGM), where difficult conditions make monitoring of harmful elements and chemicals used in the processes highly challenging. Current sampling methods require the use of hazardous or expensive materials, and so difficulties in sample collection and transport are elevated. To solve this problem, a solid-phase extraction-based method was developed for the sampling and preservation of dissolved Hg in natural water samples, particularly those found around ASGM sites. Recoveries of 85% ± 10% total Hg were obtained during 4 weeks of storage in refrigerated (4 °C, dark) and unrefrigerated (16 °C, dark) conditions, and from a representative river water spiked to 1 μg L-1 Hg2+, 94% ± 1% Hg recovery was obtained. Solid-phase extraction loading flow rates were tested at 2, 5, and 10 mL min-1 with no breakthrough of Hg, and sorbent stability showed no breakthrough of Hg up to 2 weeks after functionalisation. The method was deployed across five artisanal gold mines in Kakamega gold belt, Kenya, to assess Hg concentrations in mine shaft water, ore washing ponds, and river and stream water, including drinking water sources. In all waters, Hg concentrations were below the WHO guideline limit value of 6 μg L-1, but drinking water sources contained trace concentrations of up to 0.35 μg L-1 total Hg, which may result in negative health effects from long-term exposure. The SPE method developed and deployed here is a robust sampling method that can therefore be applied in future Hg monitoring, toxicology, and environmental work to provide improved data that is representative of total dissolved Hg in water samples.

Towards sustainable food crop production: Drivers of shift from crop production to mining activities in Ghana's Arable Lands

This study contributes to the observed reduction of arable lands discourse by examining the shift in land use patterns as well as factors influencing farmers' shift from crop production to mining activities. To achieve this, we employed a combination of Geographic Information System (GIS) technology and Cragg's Double Hurdle Econometric Model as analytical tools. Our approach integrates an econometric model of land use with GIS simulations that predict the spatial pattern of land-use change. The results revealed that crop production lands have been converted into artisanal small-scale mining (galamsey) sites, a development which has implications on food security, life on land and effective utilizations of land and water resources. The results also showed that membership in Farmer-Based Organizations (FBOs), access to credit, and low yield of food crops influenced farmers to shift from crop production to participate in mining activities. In addition, the extent of participation in mining was influenced by family size, membership in FBOs, and low crop yield. While mining operations offer substantial economic benefits, it is crucial to strike a balance between land use for mining activities and food crop production. This is because it has the potential to worsen recent hikes in food prices and subsequently leading to rising inflation rates in Ghana. Our findings have implications on achieving multiple SDGs, viz. SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) and SDG 15 (Life on Land) as minimizing illegal mining helps increase food production as well as protect water bodies and land. We therefore suggest that government should take steps to make credit accessible to farmers by collaborating with financial institutions and also collaborate with Crops Research Institutes to develop high-yielding crop varieties. Future research could focus on exploring the impact of participating in mining activities on the profitability of food crop production in Ghana.

Effects of Regulatory Environment on the Performance of Small-Scale Mining Enterprises: Evidence from Zambia

This paper makes a significant contribution to the existing literature on the performance of small-scale mining enterprises (SSMEs) by incorporating institutional theory into an area of study that has been relatively unexplored in developing countries. The study specifically examines the effects of the regulatory environment on the performance of SSMEs in Zambia, focusing on two key regulatory dimensions: government policies and government support programs for SSMEs. The study employed a quantitative correlational research design and administered a structured questionnaire to 408 SSMEs in Zambia. The findings reveal that the regulatory environment has a substantial influence on the operations of SSMEs, ultimately influencing their performance as business entities. It is worth noting that although this study is cross-sectional and centred on Zambia, its implications extend beyond its specific context. The findings have important implications for educators, policymakers, and researchers by highlighting the significance of regulatory factors and their influence on the performance of SSMEs, thus offering valuable insights for training and entrepreneurial support initiatives.

Association between Education and Gemstone Mining Practices of Artisanal and Small-Scale Miners in Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan

Artisanal and Small-Scale mining (ASM) is ubiquitous throughout Gilgit-Baltistan (GB). It is a major source of livelihood sustenance for thousands of individuals who are directly or indirectly working as ASMs. This essay considers the association between the educational background of 300 ASMs and four scenarios, viz., (1) whether they are allowed to do mining in areas other than their villages, (2) whether they allow a non-GB person to do mining in their area, (3) whether ASMs have the right to sell mined gems to someone other than the shareholders at a price offered by the shareholders, and (4) whether they allow fellow villagers in their established mines while they are not working there. Using the Chi-Square test of association, we find a non-significant association between the educational background of ASMs and the first three scenarios listed above: the test results stand as χ2 = 0.109, χ2=0.063, and χ2=0.087 for the three scenarios, respectively. We found a significant association of χ2=0.000 concerning the final scenario, viz., whether respondents would allow fellow villagers to mine in their established mine or not.

Soil and environment quality in artisanal small-scale mining areas in western Côte d’Ivoire

Artisanal small-scale gold mining activities grow in different regions of Côte d’Ivoire, causing enormous soil and environmental damages. This study was conducted in the vicinity of illegal artisanal small-scale gold mining zones to investigate soil quality using environmental assessment tools, mainly pollution and geochemical accumulation indexes. The mining spoil from artisanal pits was sampled directly between 0 and 20 cm, collecting 500 g of soil per sampling point. Sub-samples of soil were analyzed for multi-element using X-ray fluorescence technique. The results of the XRF analysis revealed higher trace element levels at some sampling points than the recommended levels. High arsenic concentrations were identified at three sampling sites: cavally sites with 7.09 and 16.08 mg kg-1 and Zérégbo with 9.57 mg kg-1. Moreover, significant concentrations of Cu and Pb were found at the Cavally site whilst Singouiné and Zérégbo showed high concentrations of Co and Cr. The study, globally, revealed the environmental hazards caused by the organized artisanal mining.

Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in Governmental Artisanal Mining: Current Status, Development, and Future Directions

The COVID-19 pandemic is not an obstacle research and development implementation, one of which uses secondary data and bibliometric methods. Studies on mining regulation are generally about formal mining in the form of corporations, while artisanal mining is considered illegal, criminal, and its operation is prohibited because it inhibits the growth rate of a country’s socio-economic development. This study aims to analyse previous studies on governmental artisanal mining published in the Scopus database and data processing using VOSviewer software. The findings show that there are 287 documents on governmental artisanal mining published from 1987 to 2023. United Kingdom, Canada, and United States occupy most countries of publication as the place of author affiliation. Meanwhile, the author who produced the largest number of publications and is cited mostly was Galvin Hilson. The top ten publications based on the number of citations were obtained by the majority of journals ranked in Quartile 1 with the top rankings being Resource Policy Journal, Journal Cleaner Production, and Science of the Total Environment Journal. The dominant keywords used by authors were “artisanal and small-scale mining”, “formalization”, “illegal mining”, “Ghana”, and “gold”. The data revealed that there are still limited studies discussing the link between the governmentality of artisanal mining and local politics, other mining, and identity, as well as its relationship with the COVID-19 pandemic. Future studies can further develop the case of governmental artisanal mining from a social critical perspective and in comparison with other types of mining across countries.

THE IMPLICATIONS OF ARTISANAL SMALL-SCALE MINING ON FOOD SECURITY IN ZIMBABWE

Like many sub-Saharan African countries, Zimbabwe's economy and household livelihoods have traditionally been anchored on agriculture and farming. However, a radical shift has been witnessed, resulting in unprecedented growth in artisanal and small-scale mining. Various theories attempted to explain this phenomenon, including agricultural poverty due to climate change, rising prices of minerals, and economic decline, among others. The rapid growth in artisanal and small-scale mining has both positive and negative implications for food smallholder farming and ultimately all the dimensions of food security. Based on the literature review method, this essay, therefore, examines the nexus between artisanal and small-scale mining and food security. This study is important in shaping policies that strike a balance between food security and other economic activities that support livelihoods, specifically for vulnerable communities, in a sustainable manner.