Small-scale Irrigation Schemes Research Articles

Sediment Estimation and Assessment of Hydraulic Structure of Hirna Small Scale Irrigation Scheme, West Hararghe Zone Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia

Accelerated soil erosion and sedimentation is a serious concern worldwide problem and the problem of sedimentation is clearly felt in the irrigation canals, in dry years when there is scarcity of rain more silt-laden water is diverted to the canals which cause high reduction of canal capacity discharge. Hirna watershed at which Hirna small scale irrigation project found is one of the most erosion-prone watersheds in the eastern highland of Ethiopia which little attention is given. The objectives of this study were to estimate Hirna river watershed sediment loss and to evaluate the design concept of Hirna small scale irrigation canals in view of water and sediment transport. This study spatial predict soil loss rate of the watershed using Geographic Information System, Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation was used to estimate potential soil loss. Based on the analysis, the mean and total annual soil loss potential of the study watershed was 26.61 ton/ha/yr and 140,569.99 tons/yr respectively. About 36.60% (1,933.42 ha) of watershed was classified under high to very high soil loss class while the remaining 63.40% (3349.17 ha) of watershed categorized under slow to moderate soil loss class. The total soil loss at the outlet of watershed or at the weir site estimated as 25,311.80 tons. Beside spatial estimation of soil loss, field soil loss measurement by runoff controlling point was also done. The estimated mean annual soil loss from watershed with runoff pot method was 22.30 ton/ha/yr. which that the two value of soil loss estimated with runoff plot and spatial estimated with the help of the model was almost the same. Assessment of irrigation project and structural problem by measuring bed load, structural problem observation, and redesigning of the Hirna small scale irrigation were done to relate the capacity of the structure with the designed discharge and sediment deposited. As the assessment show the project have a problem of sedimentation due to improper design of flow velocity and canal slope. Finally the result show 116.80 tons of sediment was deposited in irrigation canal which have dramatically reduced the quantity of designed water depth into 41.67% and reduced designed discharge with 50.2%. Keywords: - GIS, RUSLE, hydraulic structure, Design, Hirna, Ethiopia DOI : 10.7176/ISDE/10-3-01 Publication date :March 31 st 2019

Profitability and Water Productivity of Small Scale Irrigation Schemes in Northern Ghana

The Savelugu-Nanton District of Northern Ghana is a beneficiary of irrigation projects mostly on small scale basis schemes. Poor data situation due to inadequate appraisal of these schemes results in difficulty to track their progress and impacts, which threatens their sustainability. This study was conducted to assess the profitability and productivity of the Libga and Bunglung small scale irrigation schemes in the District between 2013 and 2015. Sixty households were selected using random sampling techniques. Production data, costs, yield and soil data were gathered using structured questionnaires and field measurements. Data on traditional rainfed systems were gathered from secondary information. The results indicated that yields of rice were greater in Bunglung than in Libga scheme but both schemes had greater yields than rainfed systems, resulting in greater profits under irrigation. However, yields of pepper were greater in Libga than in Bunglung. Crop water productivity (CWP) in terms of harvested weight of rice was 0.50 and 0.58 kilogram per cubic meter in Libga and Bunglung respectively while CWPs in terms of gross value of harvested rice were 0.38 and 0.41 Ghana cedis per cubic meter respectively. For pepper, the CWPs were 0.74 and 0.64 kilogram per cubic meter in terms of crop weight in Libga and Bunglung respectively while CWPs in terms of gross value were 1.23 and 1.07 Ghana cedis per cubic meter respectively. Irrigation improved farmers’ incomes, however, pepper production was more profitable than rice production at both schemes. More investments by farmers are important to achieving maximum yields.

English

The utilization of small-scale irrigation schemes plays a significant role in addressing food security problems as a supplementary with rain-fed or irrigation agriculture in the basin and as a whole in the country. The conveyance efficiency values at Shina-Hamusit was 73%, while at Selamko it was 59%. These values showed that the conveyance loss is huge in both irrigation schemes, especially at Selamko that has canals maintenance as the major identified problem, resulting in water logging in the farmlands through seepage. The application efficiency of Shina-Hamusit ranges from 47 to 57%, while it ranges from 53 to 64% for Selamko. This indicates that, application efficiency at field level in Selamko is better than Shina-Hamusit. This may be associated with the farmer’s perception, type of crops grown and excess rainfall. Water users are responsible for the overall water management including maintenance of the main diversion in irrigation schemes. In the studied areas at Shina-Hamusit scheme, there is collection of water fee and the Woreda cooperatives promotion desk auditors have not held the documents and audited the accounts while at Selamko there is no water fee now, and no maintenance of canals; the reasons for this may be weak committee and delay of payments by the farmers. The Selamko local irrigation authority maybe suggested as reforming their institutional water management and taking of water fee before irrigation, and to observe the activities of the water use association and assist them in implementing efficient water management and water saving strategies. At Shina-Hamusit scheme, market and road accesses were the major constraints that make the scheme to be inefficient whereas at Selamko major constraints concentrated on upstream and downstream irrigation scheme maintenance, potato disease, water logging, as well as market constraints. Key words: Conveyance efficiency, application efficiency, major constraints, water distribution and management, water fee.

Performance Evaluation of Selected Surface Irrigation Schemes in Kachabira Woreda, SNNPRS, Ethiopia

This study was conducted to evaluate the comparative performances of two community-managed small scale irrigation schemes at Gemesha and Ufute with a command area of 48 ha and 40 ha using internal performance indicators. In order to evaluate the irrigation water use efficiency at the field level, nine farmer fields were selected from each irrigation schemes in relation to their location (from the head, middle and tail end water users). The internal performance indicators namely, in conveyance efficiencies, application efficiencies, deep percolation, storage efficiencies and irrigation uniformity shows (61.15 and 65.63%), (58.75 and 71.7%), (41.25 and 28.3%), (36.91% and 23.9%) and (98.32 and 97.79%) for Gemesha and Ufute respectively. The irrigation ratio results for physical sustainability indicator shows 0.32 and 0.4 for Gemesha and Ufute irrigation respectively. The result of relative Irrigation Supply for both irrigation schemes was higher than one, this shows that there were over supply of water in both irrigation schemes for Gemesha and Ufute respectively. Based on the assessment carried out, Ufute irrigation scheme performed better than Gemesha irrigation scheme. But there is still a room for improvement of the performance of both irrigation schemes. Keywords: Internal indicators, efficiency, deep percolation, irrigation,

Comparison of Water Management and Rice Production among Farmer Groups in Large- and Small-Scale Irrigation Schemes: A Case Study of Rice Cultivation Near Lake Victoria in Western Kenya

Comparison of Water Management and Rice Production among Farmer Groups in Large- and Small-Scale Irrigation Schemes: A Case Study of Rice Cultivation Near Lake Victoria in Western Kenya

The dynamics of the relationship between household decision-making and farm household income in small-scale irrigation schemes in southern Africa

Irrigation has been promoted as a strategy to reduce poverty and improve livelihoods in southern Africa. Households’ livelihood strategies within small-scale irrigation schemes have become increasingly complex and diversified. Strategies consist of farm income from rain-fed and irrigated cropping as well as livestock and an increasing dependence on off-farm income. The success of these strategies depends on the household’s ability to make decisions about how to utilize its’ financial, labour, land and water resources. This study explores the dynamics of decision-making in households on-farm household income within six small-scale irrigation schemes, across three southern African countries. Household survey data (n = 402) was analyzed using ordered probit and ordinary least squares regression. Focus group discussions and field observations provided qualitative data on decision-making in the six schemes. We found strong support for the notion that decision-making dynamics strongly influence total household income. Households make trade-offs between irrigation, dryland, livestock and off-farm work when they allocate their labour resources to maximize household income; as opposed to maximizing the income from any individual component of their livelihood strategy, such as irrigation. Combined with the impact of the small plot size of irrigated land, this is likely to result in sub-optimal benefits from expensive investments in irrigation infrastructure. Policy-makers must consider this when developing and implementing new policies.

English

This study was conducted to identify and understand the current level of canal water conveyance and on-farm water application efficiency of Lemchek-Sewur small-scale irrigation scheme in Ethiopia. The water conveyance efficiency of canals was determined by estimating discharge at different segments. On-farm water application efficiency was evaluated from the amount of water actually applied and from soil moisture measurements. Primary data were collected through flow measurement, transect walk, household surveys and group discussions, whereas secondary data were collected from different sources. Microsoft Excels and Geographic Information System software were used to analyze the data. The mean values of water conveyance efficiency of main, secondary and tertiary canals were 86.17, 86.26 and 55.97%, respectively. Mean value of the overall on-field water application efficiency was 53.13%. Generally, the performance of the irrigation scheme was poor mainly due to illegal water abstraction, sedimentation of canals and inadequate operation and maintenance provisions. Therefore, adequate maintenance and suitable management approaches are required to improve the irrigation system performance. Key words: Lemchek-Sewur SSI scheme, conveyance efficiency, application efficiency, evaluation, Ethiopia.

Performance of small-scale irrigation schemes in Lake Tana Basin of Ethiopia: technical and socio-political attributes

ABSTRACTThis study was conducted to investigate technical and socio-political attributes that lead to the underperformance of two selected irrigation schemes (Shina and Bebeks) in the Lake Tana floodplains, Ethiopia. Irrigation application efficiency (AE) at nine experimental fields showed a wide range, from 20 to 80%, but was mostly between 40 and 60%. Irrigation water-use efficiency (IWUE) varied from 1.9 to 7.2 kg m−3 for onion and 0.9 to 1.2 kg m−3 for maize. The lined and earthen canal conveyance losses in Bebeks were 0.037 and 0.047 l s−1 m−1, whereas in Shina they were 0.033 and 0.044 l s−1 m−1, respectively. The overall consumed ratio (OCR) of water was 0.58 for Bebeks and varied from 0.73 to 1.2 in Shina. Both schemes are performing below the standard based on technical performance indicators. Irrigation water user associations (WUAs) were not implemented, but irrigation committees (ICs), composed of local political leaders, are managing both schemes. Canal and reservoir sedimentation from erosion of upstream catchment areas during the rainy season was the major problem.

CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION BY FARMERS IN CHINGECHURU WARD, MBERENGWA DISTRICT, ZIMBABWE

The study sought to assess the impact of climate change on agriculture in Chingechuru ward in Mberengwa District, and the adaptation strategies by the farmers in the study area. A questionnaire, key informant interviews and observation were used in collecting primary data for the study. Quantitative data from the questionnaire were analysed using descriptive statistics presented in tabular form, while qualitative data were analysed narratively through content analysis. Various adverse impacts of climate change on farming were identified including, inter alia, increased incidences of livestock and crop pests and diseases, shorter rainy seasons and insufficient seasonal rains characterised by mid-season dry spells, and more frequent severe floods which often destroy crop fields. The farmers in Chingechuru have adopted various adaptation strategies to climate change such as the growing of drought resistant crop varieties, growing of early maturing varieties, staggering of planting dates and improved grain storage among other adaptation strategies. However, due to various constraints including lack of resources and ineffective extension services, the majority of the farmers in the study area have not adopted the various climate change adaptation strategies. There is need for increasing the number of agricultural extension workers in the study area so as to make extension services more effective. This will raise climate change adaptation knowledge among the farmers as a result of more favourable extension worker to farmer ratios. Government, acting as guarantor, could also facilitate access to low-interest loans by eligible farmers so as to enhance their adaptation capacity to climate change, as lack of capital has also been identified as a major impediment to climate change adaptation. With rains becoming more erratic and resulting in increased water stress in the study area, small-scale irrigation schemes could be promoted through the construction of small dams or the drilling of boreholes. Article visualizations:

Water Allocation to Small Scale Irrigation Schemes Using the Results of Analysis from WEAP Model: An Application to Mekabo Scheme in Tigray, Ethiopia

The recently commissioned Mekabo Small Scale Irrigation (SSI) scheme may inevitably fail to collect all its water demand from Agula River because upstream water users traditionally privilege themselves with superior water rights. With the present growing desire for constructing more SSI schemes in Tigray region, it is highly likely that the current intensive water competition further escalates to a more stressful level. Given the need for a fair water distribution among all water users, the WEAP model has been employed to develop a management strategy and to perform a rigorous water balance and water allocation analysis. Accordingly, the information about six SSI schemes along Agula River was input in WEAP. A workable water management strategy was adopted and values for the two most insightful indicators "Demand Site Coverage" and "Unmet Demand" were computed and compared. The WEAP Model has competently responded to the probing management strategy and has provided a deep insight into the performance of assigned water allocation scenarios. The findings have shown that, if a fair water allocation were the only primary interest, assigning an equal priority to all water users would be a recommendable choice in WEAP. However, if the study aims at satisfying the full demand of a specific water user; therefore, assigning two-extreme priority settings could be the best-preferred management strategy.

Water Allocation to Small Scale Irrigation Schemes Using the Results of Analysis from WEAP Model: An Application to Mekabo Scheme in Tigray, Ethiopia

The recently commissioned Mekabo Small Scale Irrigation (SSI) scheme may inevitably fail to collect all its water demand from Agula River because upstream water users traditionally privilege themselves with superior water rights. With the present growing desire for constructing more SSI schemes in Tigray region, it is highly likely that the current intensive water competition further escalates to a more stressful level. Given the need for a fair water distribution among all water users, the WEAP model has been employed to develop a management strategy and to perform a rigorous water balance and water allocation analysis. Accordingly, the information about six SSI schemes along Agula River was input in WEAP. A workable water management strategy was adopted and values for the two most insightful indicators Site Coverage and Unmet Demand were computed and compared. The WEAP Model has competently responded to the probing management strategy and has provided a deep insight into the performance of assigned water allocation scenarios. The findings have shown that, if a fair water allocation were the only primary interest, assigning an equal priority to all water users would be a recommendable choice in WEAP. However, if the study aims at satisfying the full demand of a specific water user; therefore, assigning two-extreme priority settings could be the best-preferred management strategy.

Effect of planting time on growth, yield components, seed yield and quality of onion (Allium cepa L.) at Tehuledere district, northeastern Ethiopia

BackgroundOnion (Allium cepa L.) is member of the family Alliaceae and the most widely grown herbaceous biennial vegetable crop. Quality planting material is one of the major inputs to successful vegetable production. However, it is one of the major constraints in Ethiopia. Northeastern Ethiopia has suitable agro-climatic condition for onion seed production. However, onion seed production packages, including its appropriate planting time, are not yet determined. Evidences on effects of the different planting time on quality and yield level are not well explored. Therefore, this experiment was conducted at Jari small-scale irrigation scheme from September 2015 to April 2016 to determine an appropriate planting time for a better plant growth, yield components, seed yield and quality of Adama red onion variety.MethodsThe experiment was laid out in randomized complete block design with three replications. Treatments were nine planting dates: September 1st, September 16th, October 1st, October 16th, October 31st, November 15th, November 30th, December 15th and December 30th. Data were collected on growth, yield components, seed yield and quality parameters and analyzed using SAS version 9.2 statistical software.ResultsAnalysis of variance revealed that plant height, number of leaves per plant, number of scapes per plant, scape diameter, scape height, days to 50% flowering and maturity, umbel diameter, number of seeds per umbel, 1000-seed weight, seed yield and germination percentage were significantly influenced by planting time. The highest seed yield (1032.7 kg/ha) and the highest germination percentage (94.3%) were recorded from bulbs planted early (September 1st). On the other hand, the lowest seed yield (29.7 kg/ha) and germination percentage (15.3%) recorded from bulb planted late (December). The correlation values explain the apparent association of the planting time parameters with each other and clearly indicated the magnitude and directions of the association and relationships.ConclusionThe September 1st is recommended as appropriate planting time for onion seed production at Jari, northeastern Ethiopia.

Climate variability, communities’ perceptions and land management strategies in Lay Gayint Woreda, Northwest Ethiopia

Climate variability is the fluctuation of climatic elements from the normal or baseline values. Agrarian communities are the most sensitive social groups to climate variability and associate extreme weather-induced hazards due to the fact that climate variability affects the two most important direct agricultural production inputs, such as rainfall and temperature. As Ethiopia is heavily dependent on agriculture its economic development is being hindered by climate variability coupled with many other deriving forces. Therefore, the objective of this study is to examine climate variability, local communities’ perceptions and land management strategies to reduce the adverse impact of climate variability in Lay Gayint Woreda, Ethiopia. Both primary and secondary data were used to complete this study. Primary data were collected and analyzed from a total of 200 randomly selected respondents reside in different agro-ecological areas. Metrology data were gathered from Nefas Mewcha Station from the years 1979 to 2010. Standardized rainfall anomaly index (SRAI), crop diversification index (CDI) and other descriptive statistical techniques were used to analyze the data. The results obtained from the climate data revealed an increase in temperature, and decrease and/or erratic in rainfall distribution. Time series SRAI from 1979 to 2010 indicates that 2002 and 2008 were characterized by extreme and severe dry conditions in order of importance with high impact on crop yields whist only 1984 and 1990 received near normal rainfall amount. Similarly, the survey result reveals that out of the total household heads, 87.5 % perceived that there was an increase in temperature over the last 20 years. The survey result also disclosed that significant numbers of households are more likely to adopt different land management strategies to reduce the negative impact of climate variability. Constructing terraces and check dams as well as planting trees were the major land management strategies used by the local communities. However, crop diversification index (CDI) was found to be 0.11 as the cultivated area is stanch to one crop indicating very low alternative crop production in the study area. Although the study area receives variable and inefficient rainfall the rugged topography and poor soil conditions have hindered the development of irrigation facilities. Local context-specific integrated watershed management activities, small-scale irrigation schemes and extension services need to be strengthened to reduce the impact of climate variability. Policy makers need also to substantially invest in establishing information dissemination systems in order to provide reliable weather information for farmers given that crop production is largely dependent on it.

A Case Study on Water Distribution in a Small Scale Irrigation Scheme in Tanzania

A Case Study on Water Distribution in a Small Scale Irrigation Scheme in Tanzania

English

Assessment of irrigation performances is very essential while planning and chalking out management strategies for various irrigation. However, in Ethiopia, especially Tigray, performance evaluation of irrigation schemes is rarely conducted. The performance of Tahtay Tsalit irrigation scheme was not assessed yet and hence, this research was undertaken to assess the hydraulic performance of the irrigation scheme. The study was carried out during the irrigation season from September to November, 2016. The field measurements on canal dimensions, water flow measurements and water surface elevation were undertaken at selected sampling points. Simple descriptive statistics was employed for analysis of the data collected from field measurements and observations. However, hydraulic performance indicators were used to evaluate the performance of this irrigation scheme. Several factors such as flooding, sedimentation, design problems, damage of sluice gates, abstraction of irrigation water by unwanted plants has been identified in this irrigation scheme for mal-functional of different irrigation structures. Hydraulic performance of the irrigation system was evaluated using ten hydraulic performance indicators. There was no problem in irrigation adequacy (0.84 fair), equity (fair), dependability (0.057 good) and efficiency (0.77 fair) of irrigation water in this irrigation scheme. The average water surface elevation ratio, delivery performance ratio, and delivery duration ratio of the main canal during the monitoring period was less than one, greater than 5 and 150%, respectively. The highest sediment accumulation was observed at head and middle reaches of the irrigation scheme than the tail reaches. Generally, in this irrigation scheme there were a number of irrigation structures which had mal-functioned, and now required to be remodeled with sustainable solution to improve the performance of the irrigation scheme. Hence, it has been recommended that capacity building and awareness creation for irrigation water users, water committee, Woreda and Kebelle expertise are the main key factor to bring a change in irrigation water managements. Key words: Hydraulic structures, hydraulic performance, small scale irrigation scheme.

Irrigation water management: Farmers’ practices, perceptions and adaptations at Gumselassa irrigation scheme, North Ethiopia

Poor irrigation water management associated with water scarcity is the major reason for underperformance of most small-scale irrigation schemes in Ethiopia. In order to devise appropriate measures for rehabilitation of the failing schemes and to enhance farmers’ adaptation capacity to water scarcity, it is important to assess site specific plot and scheme level water management practices, challenges, farmers’ perceptions and adaptation strategies. So far, there is no such study in the context of Tigray, Ethiopia. A survey was conducted on 109 farmers in three groups based on the source of irrigation water, which included canal, seepage and both canal and seepage water users. Focus group discussions with elders, water users association (WUA) committee and women headed households were also made. Furthermore, random field measurements on conveyance loss, groundwater depth and quality (EC) were also taken to verify the farmers’ perception. The respondents’ perception of severe water scarcity at scheme level and poor on-farm and scheme level water management practices are among the major causes for aggravating water scarcity, crops yield decline and soil salinization were in line with field observations. Despite several adaptation strategies of the farmers at plot and at scheme level, yield is still declining. The only adaptation strategy that has been enforced by the local government authority was reduction of the irrigated land. However, in the 2016 irrigation season the farmers were allowed to make their own decisions that resulted in innovative water scarcity adaptation strategies and that doubled the irrigated land as compared to the local authority plan. This showed the significance of allowing the beneficiaries to make their own decisions. To rehabilitate Gumselassa irrigation scheme as well as to enhance the adaptation capacity of the farmers to water scarcity capacity building and empowerment of the WUA and improvement on the existing water structure is required.

A review on waterlogging, salinization and drainage in Ethiopian irrigated agriculture

Ethiopia’s agricultural production has been challenged by severe waterlogging and salinity problems which has resulted in substantially lower yields than the potential. Waterlogging is the main drainage problem in the small scale irrigation schemes in the Vertisols dominated highland areas while salinity and salinization is a common phenomenon in the large and medium scale irrigation schemes located in the lowlands of the country’s major river basins with predominantly salt affected soils. The lack of functional drainage system and poor water management practices have also significantly contributed to the frequent occurrence of waterlogging and salt build-up in irrigation fields. This paper reviews important technical issues related to drainage problems in Ethiopia, notably waterlogging and salinization, and their consequences on the productivity of irrigated agriculture. It also briefly discusses the land reclamation techniques practiced by the farmers, the government and NGOs and their effectiveness in controlling waterlogging and salinity.

English

This review aims to compile the past, present and future trends of participatory small-scale irrigation schemes (PSSIS) and small-scale rainwater harvesting technology (SSRWHT) development to ensure household food security in Ethiopia. It discusses the Ethiopian PSSIS and SSRWHT development based on the historical backgrounds, current conditions of development and its contributions to the national economy, challenges and opportunities, and future development perspectives. PSSIS and SSRWHT development has been suggested to be a central key part in curbing food scarcity and alleviating poverty not only in water scarce regions of the Ethiopia but also in many other developing countries. Government, donors and NGOs are investing in developing irrigation systems, especially on PSSIS and SSRWHT. Still irrigated land is 5 to 10% of 5.3 million hectares of irrigated potential area of country. This review indicates that, the existing current performance of PSSIS and SSRWHT development in Ethiopia is not significantly contributing to national economy of the country, when compared to rain-fed agriculture. Accordingly, irrigation sub-sector is not contributing its share based on the resources potential of the country. There is no consistent and reliable inventory data, lacks agreed reports in common consensus and well-studied and documented with regards to water and irrigations related potentials and implementations of PSSIS and SSRWHT development in the country. Key words: Eco-efficient schemes practices, irrigation users' cooperative, smallholder farmers.

English

Livelihoods of the rural people of Ethiopia depend on agriculture. However, erratic nature of rain and prevalence of drought in the country make agricultural production a challenge. To counter this problem, use of the available water resource for irrigation development is the most promising option. Ketar small scale irrigation scheme is found in Ketar-Genet Peasant association, Tiyo District, Arsi zone, established with the aim of improving level of income and food security of beneficiary households. Nevertheless, no previous study was conducted on the contribution of the scheme to income and food security of households. Thus, this study was conducted with the objective to investigate the contribution of small-scale irrigation to rural household income and food security. The required data set for the study were gathered primarily through survey method from 130 randomly selected sample households both from irrigation users and non-users (65 each). Structured interview was used as data collection method. Both descriptive and inferential statistical methods were used to analyze the required data. Results of the study revealed that, income from irrigated vegetable crops contributed for 21.38% of the total annual crop income for the irrigation users; irrigation users were in better position in terms of livestock (7.58 to 4.38 TLU) and oxen ownership (1.78 to 1.12 TLU); participation in credit (52 to 23%) and the use of extension advisory services. Results of the logit model indicated that age of household head, education level of household head, size of the cultivated land, number of oxen, livestock holding (TLU), income from livestock and irrigation found to be influencing household food security at 1, 5, and 10% significant levels. In general, the empirical analysis confirms that small-scale irrigation development would have positive impact on income and food security of beneficiary households. Thus, the concerned development partners being governmental or non-governmental should join hands to promote the development of such small scale irrigation schemes. Key Words: Small-scale irrigation, food security, agricultural production.

Path Dependence in Nebo Plateau: Strategic Partnerships and Rural Poverty Alleviation in South African Small-Scale Irrigation Schemes

To address the challenges associated with under-utilised smallholder irrigation schemes located in former homeland areas in South Africa, strategic partnerships between black farmers and white, established commercial farmers have been implemented by the Limpopo Provincial Department of Agriculture since the 2000s. This article aims to explain the adoption, and then the resilience over time, of this policy instrument, despite its failure to meet its objectives. We first demonstrate that policy instruments rarely result from an objective assessment of the situation at stake, and more often simply recycle previously used policies that were designed in attempts to provide solutions to other scenarios, which may not reflect the same characteristics as the situation currently under investigation. We then argue that the resilience of the particular policy instrument called ‘strategic partnership’ has been ensured thanks to a mechanism of ‘path dependence’ that is derived from previous policy decisions. Indeed, we demonstrate how the legacy of these earlier, primary policy choices makes it difficult to re-evaluate policy decisions favourable to strategic partnerships. Building on neo-institutionalist theories (sociological, historical and rational) that emphasise continuity within public policies, it will be made clear how strategic partnerships ultimately imposed themselves as a foregone policy ‘choice’, despite their disappointing results.