Small-scale Irrigation Farming Research Articles

Invest in small-scale irrigated agriculture: A national assessment on potential to expand small-scale irrigation in Nigeria

Nigeria is faced with the daunting challenge to improve performance of its agriculture sector. Currently, crop production in Nigeria is predominantly rainfed; irrigation is perceived as an important means to boost agricultural productivity in the country. We estimated the potential of expanding small-scale irrigation in Nigeria, considering both biophysical and economic constraints. Under baseline conditions, the land area in Nigeria with investment potential for small-scale irrigation is estimated to be 1 million ha in dry-season and 0.65 million ha in rainy season, respectively. Further sensitivity analyses show that the estimated potentially irrigable area depends on input parameters such as irrigation cost, fertilizer application rate and farmers’ risk aversion coefficient. These results reveal not only substantial potential of investing in small-scale irrigation in Nigeria, but also financial risks in the investment and importance of linking irrigation investment decisions to agricultural policies beyond irrigation to create coordinated strategy for agricultural development.

Drought adaptation and development: small-scale irrigated agriculture in northeast Brazil

Water scarcity has intensified in northeast Brazil over the past decade. The same period has brought economic growth, aggressive government-funded social support programmes, and technological advancements. These latter factors have led to widespread, successful, and largely unintended adaptation to increasing climatic stress. With specific focus on the experience of irrigated farmers in Pernambuco during the 2011–2013 drought, the worst in a half century, in this article, we examine how Brazil’s societal changes have led to the emergence of unique climate adaptation strategies. To put this into context, income diversification, particularly in the form of employment in clothing production, provides a stable back-up income for farmers amidst environmental uncertainty. Aggressive poverty alleviation programmes, foundational to the presidential administrations of Lula da Silva and Dilma Rousseff, have had the spillover benefit of decreasing climate vulnerability. Efficient irrigation technology, which farmers have adopted primarily in an effort to decrease erosion and labour needs, saves water and decreases drought vulnerability. In summary, we find that the study area serves as a global example that economic, political, and social developments not aimed at climate adaptation can inadvertently facilitate it and decrease drought vulnerability.

Food security in the face of climate change: Adaptive capacity of small-scale social-ecological systems to environmental variability

Abstract Improving the adaptive capacity of small-scale irrigation systems to the impacts of climate change is crucial for food security in Asia. This study analyzes the capacity of small-scale irrigation systems dependent on the Asian monsoon to adapt to variability in river discharge caused by climate change. Our study is motivated by the Pumpa irrigation system, a small-scale irrigation system located in Nepal that is a model for this type of system. We developed an agent-based model in which we simulated the decisions farmers make about the irrigation strategy to use according to available water flow. Given the uncertainty associated with how climate change may affect the Asian monsoon, we simulated the performance of the system under different projections of climate change in the region (increase and decrease in rainfall, reduction and expansion of the monsoon season, and changes in the timing of the onset of the monsoon). Accordingly to our simulations, farmers might need to adapt to rainfall intensification and a late onset in the monsoon season. The demands for collective action among farmers (e.g. infrastructure repair, meetings, decisions, etc.) might increase considerably due to climate change. Although our model suggests that investment in new infrastructure might increase the performance of the system under some climate change scenarios, the high inequality among farmers when water availability is reduced might hinder the efficiency of these measures due to a reduction of farmers’ willingness to cooperate. Our modeling exercise helps to hypothesize about the most sensitive climate change scenarios for smallscale irrigation farming in Nepal and helps to frame a discussion of some possible solutions and fundamental trade-offs in the process of adaptation to improve for food and water security under climate change.

Effect of infrastructure design on commons dilemmas in social−ecological system dynamics

The use of shared infrastructure to direct natural processes for the benefit of humans has been a central feature of human social organization for millennia. Today, more than ever, people interact with one another and the environment through shared human-made infrastructure (the Internet, transportation, the energy grid, etc.). However, there has been relatively little work on how the design characteristics of shared infrastructure affect the dynamics of social-ecological systems (SESs) and the capacity of groups to solve social dilemmas associated with its provision. Developing such understanding is especially important in the context of global change where design criteria must consider how specific aspects of infrastructure affect the capacity of SESs to maintain vital functions in the face of shocks. Using small-scale irrigated agriculture (the most ancient and ubiquitous example of public infrastructure systems) as a model system, we show that two design features related to scale and the structure of benefit flows can induce fundamental changes in qualitative behavior, i.e., regime shifts. By relating the required maintenance threshold (a design feature related to infrastructure scale) to the incentives facing users under different regimes, our work also provides some general guidance on determinants of robustness of SESs under globalization-related stresses.

Improving the Management and Use of Water Resources for Small-Scale Irrigation Farming in the Garu Tempane District of Ghana

Small scale irrigation farming has been recognized as an important avenue for improving the well being of poor people living in arid and marginal areas of the world. The contribution of small scale irrigation can be seen in its ability to ensure food security as well as contribute to the income of farmers. In the Garu-Tempane District, small scale irrigation farming is a major source of livelihood for people in the district. Despite the importance of the irrigation schemes to dry season farming the schemes face challenges such as inadequate water, inadequate canals, choked and broken canals due to frequent breakdown and inadequate repairs which affect their effective operation. Although the major use of the dam waters was dry season farming, animal watering and fishing were also found to be significant uses of the dam waters. In north-eastern Ghana as it is in many parts of the third world, external development agencies support the formation of Water User Associations (WUAs) for the management of community-based irrigation schemes. Although, the management of the schemes and the use of the dam is the responsibility of the community represented by the WUAs it was revealed by the study that, in the management of challenges that confront small scale irrigation schemes, WUAs depended on the supportive roles of traditional authorities as well as district assemblies for discharging their management responsibilities more effectively.

Self-sufficiency policy and irrigated rice productivity in the Senegal River Valley

Senegal’s high dependence on rice imports exposes the country to international market shocks with concomitant serious risks for food security. Since 2011 and triggered by high international prices, several initiatives to upgrade the rice value chain have emerged in the private sector. However, the major constraint private investors are currently facing is the insufficient supply of Senegal River Valley (SRV) paddy rice, implying that investment in productivity is becoming vital for the continuation of their operations, which are currently running below their optimum. The Senegalese government is investing heavily in the national rice sector, with the ambitious objective of achieving self-sufficiency in the year 2015. However, the program focuses primarily on extension of the area grown rather than increased productivity. We provide econometric support for policy making by assessing the determinants of productivity and technical efficiency in irrigated rice production systems through a five-year panel dataset of small-scale irrigated rice farms in the SRV. We found that due to the exacerbation of biological and institutional constraints in the SRV, rice growers had difficulties in maintaining productivity of their land. These constraints prevented them from further intensification, jeopardizing the national objective of self-sufficiency. Farmers exhibited modest technical efficiency levels, suggesting that, in addition to the proposed intensification strategies, substantial efforts in extension services will be required in order to achieve the goal of self-sufficiency. Improved weed and bird control as well as technological, organizational and institutional improvements were identified as key factors for boosting productivity and technical efficiency and, hence, these are target areas needing attention by Senegalese farmers and policy makers in their quest for increased food security.

An analysis of the joint adoption of water conservation and soil conservation in Central Chile

Studies reveal that 80% of the world's agricultural land is showing signs of moderate levels of soil erosion. On the other hand, it is a fact that water is becoming a more scarce resource jeopardizing food security. Thus, conserving both water and soil are two of the most pressing issues in international agriculture and food production. This article examines the impact of natural, social, human, and financial capital variables on the adoption of water conservation and soil conservation (WC&SC) as a joint decision, using a bivariate model. Socioeconomic and production information was collected by surveying a random sample of 319 small-scale irrigated farms in central Chile in 2005. The results suggest that the adoption of WC&SC is a joint and complementary decision. The results also indicate that farm size, production system, access to credit, and government incentives are important variables associated with the adoption of conservation measures. From a policy stand point, the institutions in charge of providing incentives and administering instruments intended to promote conservation should take into account the complementarity of the adoption decisions. Program designs should incorporate incentives that jointly promote the adoption of WC&SC in order to enhance effectiveness.

An easy and low-cost method for preprocessing and matching small-scale amateur aerial photography for assessing agricultural land use in Burkina Faso

In recent decades, the Kou watershed in south-western Burkina Faso has suffered from poor water management. Despite the abundance of water, most water users regularly face water shortages because of the increase in the amount of land under irrigation. To help them achieve a more equitable allocation of irrigated land, local stakeholders need an easily managed low-cost tool for monitoring and mapping these irrigated zones. The aim of this study was to develop a fast and low-cost procedure for mosaicing and geo referencing amateur small-scale aerial photographs for land-use surveys. Sets of tens (2009) and hundreds (2007) of low-altitude aerial photographs, with a resolution of 0.4m and 0.8m, respectively, were used to create a detailed land-cover map of typical African small-scale irrigated agriculture. A commercially available stitching tool and GIS allowed geo referenced 'mono-images’ to be constructed; both mosaics were warped on a high-resolution SPOT image with a horizontal root mean square error (RMSE) of about 11m. The RMSE between the two image datasets was 2m. This approach is less sensitive to atmospheric conditions that are non-predictable in programming satellite imagery.

Adaptive strategies to climate change in Southern Malawi

Climate change poses a big challenge to rural livelihoods in the Shire Valley area of Southern Malawi, where communities have depended almost entirely on rain-fed agriculture for generations. The Shire Valley area comprises of low-altitude dambo areas and uplands which have been the main agricultural areas. Since early to mid 1980s, the uplands have experienced prolonged droughts and poor rainfall distribution, while the dambos have experienced recurrent seasonal floods. This study assessed some of the adaptive strategies exercised by small-scale rural farmers in response to climate change in the Shire Valley. The methodology used in collecting information includes group discussions, household surveys in the area, secondary data, and field observations. The results show that small-scale rural farmers exercise a number of adaptive strategies in response to climate change. These adaptive strategies include: increased use of water resources for small-scale irrigation or wetland farming, mostly using simple delivery techniques; increased management of residual moisture; and increased alternative sources of income such as fishing and crop diversity. It was also observed that government promoted the use of portable motorized pumps for small-scale irrigation in order to mitigate the effects of climate change. However, these external interventions were not fully adopted; instead the farmers preferred local interventions which mostly had indigenous elements.

Improving agricultural water management in the semi-arid region of Brazil: experimental and modelling study

Agricultural practice in the semi-arid region of Brazil is highly dependant on irrigation. As access to water is limited in the region, there is a need to guarantee its efficient use, especially in small-scale farming schemes. Models adequately calibrated for semi-arid conditions and for typical crops are useful tools for analysis of on-farm strategies to improve water use efficiency. A physically based agrohydrological model, SALTMED, is calibrated and validated for carrots (Daucus carota L., Brasilia variety) and cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata), two of the main crops in small-scale irrigated agriculture in the northeast of Brazil. SALTMED is also calibrated for castor beans (Ricinus communis L.) under rainfed conditions. The results demonstrated the suitability of the SALTMED model for simulating soil water dynamics and crop yield in the area. Predicted time series of soil water content and matric potential of root zone showed good agreement with observed values, as shown graphically and statistically. Using the calibrated and validated model, management scenarios were analysed in terms of applied irrigation water, irrigation frequency, soil and crop types. Impact of climate change on the irrigation water requirements was also briefly analysed for possible changes in annual temperature using two different emission scenarios. Analysis of possible impact of climate change on temperature related to two emission scenarios on the area showed an increase around 11% of the crop water requirement for carrots and cabbage, for the low emission scenario, and around 17% for the high emission scenario. The analysis of management scenarios indicated possible over-irrigation in the area. The simulation showed that the deficit irrigation was a useful water-saving strategy for the region. The simulations also indicated that irrigation frequency affected crop water use and differed according to the soil type.

The Effect of Some Socio-Economic Factors on Income of Small-Scale Irrigation Farming: The Case Study of Godino Peasant Association in Ada Woreda, Oromiya Region

The paper examines the effect of some socio-economic factors on income of small-scale irrigation farmers of Godino Peasant Association in Ada Woreda. It is based on the survey conducted in four villages covering 200 households. The survey revealed that shallot is the dominant crop, extensively grown by almost 91% of sampled farmers. The mean land area allocated for shallot was 0.28 ha. This occupied 47% of the irrigated land. Shallot has become an attractive cash crop because of rising demand and it has also greater price stability than other irrigated crops. The survey confirmed that farmers earned, on average, Birr 4805.60 per annum from farming, off and non-farming activities. Of which, about 67.8% came from small-scale irrigation, 28.7% from rainfed farming, and the rest from off and non-farm activities. One hectare of irrigated land, on average, generated an income of Birr 6030.80, whereas rainfed farming gave only Birr 1059.82 per hectare. To this effect, income from small-scale irrigation is significantly bigger (P=0.026) than rainfed farming. However, there is still a gap to access fertilizer, improved seeds and land resources to expand small-scale irrigation in the study area. These results pose major challenges for agriculture in the new millennium since access and distribution of resources are imminent for the production of small-scale irrigation farming.

Livelihoods in the wake of agricultural commercialisation in South Africa's poverty nodes: insights from small-scale irrigation schemes in Limpopo Province

Small-scale irrigation farming is envisaged to play a progressively larger role in rural development and to help reduce some inequalities in South Africa's space economy. Since the late 1990s, the government has aimed to ‘revitalise’ government-owned small-scale irrigation schemes, many located in former homelands. Its macro-policy shifts seem to favour the creation of a black farming elite. Important questions are whether neoliberal policies will harm the poorest and most vulnerable in irrigation farming communities, and whether a new class of petty commodity producers can establish themselves in global commodity chains. This paper looks at vulnerability and marginalisation in selected small-scale irrigation schemes in Limpopo Province. The findings suggest that existing approaches to agricultural commercialisation may not reduce rural poverty and inequality. Although these approaches help to integrate resource-poor irrigation farmers into globalised commodity production sectors, they could undermine the livelihoods of the poorest and most vulnerable in these communities.

Partnership for Success—Community-Based Economic Development: A Case Study of Ngolowindo Cooperative, Malawi

Africa has a disproportionate share of the world's poorest countries and within this context economically weak states generally lack the ability to provide the ideal level of support and opportunities for their citizens. This paper examines how, in Malawi, a community-based economic development initiative, with the aid of a supportive NGO, has significantly improved rural livelihoods and facilitated market access in the formal market economy. Active government and NGO support for small scale irrigation farming coupled with their encouragement of community development led to the emergence of the Ngolowindo agricultural cooperative which serves as a useful model and example of locality-based development in Africa. After providing a context for the study in terms of both contextual literature and details specific to the Malawian context, the paper examines how the cooperative emerged, how it operates, what role the supporting NGO plays, and how products are sold. The study concludes with an overview of key findings and an examination of the lessons for local development in Africa.

Reform of irrigation management and investment policy in African development

This paper examines the reform of water and irrigation management in Africa and compares it with similar reforms in Asia. Several things are evident from the review. First, Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is at an earlier stage of irrigation development and reform than Asia. Second, the articulated need for reform is much stronger in Asia than it is in SSA. Third, the productivity of small-scale irrigated farms is significantly lower in SSA compared to Asia. Thus any irrigation investment strategy in SSA should be different from Asia and focus on increasing small-farm productivity as well as small-scale irrigation projects. Finally, all direct government irrigation investments should be done jointly with decisions regarding the type of project management.

Land cover and land use changes in relation to social evolution—a case study from Northern Chile

In the Chile's Choapa valley (4th Region), the small-scale irrigated agriculture found today was brought about by the changes in land tenure which occurred between 1965 and 1975. In the Chillepin district, an extensive holding that produced wheat and cattle was expropriated and, after a period of collective farming, small family holdings of vineyards and orchards took their place. These changes were studied over a 50 years period through the use of social enquiries, local history, vegetation measurements and aerial photographs so as to compare the effects of the successive agrarian systems on the environment. The most intense wood extraction occurred during the 8 years’ period just after the expropriation. During 25 years of small family farming we observed that (i) diversity and number of cultivated plots in the irrigated area have increased and (ii) tree vegetation in the hinterland has partially recovered. The first is due to the know-how of the peasants, who agreed to specialize in grape production as the market became assured, but who have managed other productions in mixed farming using few chemicals and the traditional irrigation system. The second effect, in the mountainous hinterland, is mainly due to (1) the termination of rain farming and charcoal production, (2) the slowing down of the deforestation for fuel-wood and (3) the controlling of the perimeter as private property.

INSTITUTIONAL TRANSFORMATION OF SMALL-SCALE IRRIGATION FARMING IN SOUTH AFRICA

The paper outlines recent developments in small-scale irrigation farming in South Africa, particularly in terms of various institutional changes. In an attempt to put the South African situation in a broader context, institutional arrangements related to credit provision to small-scale farmers in Ghana, Tanzania and Pakistan are described. For two case studies from South Africa, regression models are used to estimate the impact of credit, extension and land tenure arrangements on small-scale farmers' net income. The findings confirm the positive impact of access to institutions on farmers' performance. We conclude by stressing the importance of institutions in small-scale irrigation farming and suggest that more emphasis should be put on the development of effective institutions in policy, program implementation and research.

The effectiveness of small-scale irrigated agriculture in the reclamation of mine land soils on the Jos Plateau of Nigeria

Following a series of trials, the Mines Land Reclamation Unit, which was given the remit to undertake reclamation of opencast tin workings on the Jos Plateau, declared that it was not feasible to reclaim soil affected by mining activity for arable agriculture. This study examines how small scale farmers have ignored this advice and, using the valuable water resources formed by flooded mining paddocks, have successfully reclaimed areas of mine soils for intensive, irrigated, arable agriculture. Although this activity has been going on for at least 50 years, it was not until the introduction of small petrol or diesel pumps in the last 15 years that a significant expansion in farming activity occurred in the mined areas. Reclamation is achieved by contouring the land as necessary, removing stones and constructing irrigation basins. The key problem facing the farmers, however, is how to improve the chemical status of the nutrient-deficient, acid soils of the mined area. Faced with restricted access to standard inorganic fertilisers, the farmers have developed a complex manuring strategy which involves the use of a combination of traditional organic manures, any available inorganic fertilisers and the use of town refuse ash. By this means, they have raised significantly both the level of the major nutrients and the soil pH to a point where the sustained cultivation of in excess of 20 crops is possible. That this can be achieved within a period of less than 12 months raises major questions about institutional reclamation policies.

LESSONS FROM THE ECONOMIC HISTORY OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT FOR SMALLHOLDER SETTLEMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA / LESSE UIT DIE EKONOMIESE GESKIEDENIS VAN BESPROEIINGSONTWIKKELING VIR KLEINBOERVESTIGING IN SUID-AFRIKA

The processes of both irrigation development and policy formulation are influenced by complex interactions and environmental changes. A holistic, systematic description and analysis indicates a gradual shift of emphasis from individual to Cooperative to public irrigation schemes. For all schemes, variable availability of water and quality of soil presented limitations. The adaptation of extensive or intensive farming practices, viable sizes of farming units, and unrealistic expectations reflected in high land prices, created problems. Following a learning process, it is clear that attention to marketing opportunities, managerial ability and access to capital must be stressed. These factors must definitely be incorporated in current reform initiatives for land settlement. In the case of small-scale irrigation farming, priority must be given to improved utilization of existing schemes, preceded by feasibility studies and accompanied by investment in human capital. Entrepreneurial initiative in the market pr...

Adoption and Diffusion of Drip Irrigation Technology: An Econometric Analysis

A growing body of literature on "threshold" adoption models argues that adoption and diffusion patterns of a new technology are the result of explicit maximizing behavior of a heterogeneous population. Unlike the views of "epidemic" models of Z. Griliches and E. Mansfield, where diffusion is considered as a process of imitation and its speed is affected by profitability and other economic considerations alone,1 the threshold approach requires identification of the various dimensions of heterogeneity in the population that are relevant for the adoption of specific technology and incorporates them in the analytical study.2 M. Caswell and D. Zilberman have identified land quality and well depth as important factors in the choice of irrigation technology.3 Therefore, economic analyses of adoption and diffusion of irrigation technology choices should explicitly incorporate physical (engineering and agronomic) and irrigation-specific features of the new technology, such as irrigation efficiency and capital and equipment costs, as well as locational characteristics such as land quality, water quality, and so on, in addition to economic factors. It is important for farmers, manufacturers of irrigation equipment, and policymakers to understand the conditions under which a specific technology, such as drip, is .desirable and is likely to be adopted, as well as the forces that affect the diffusion. Understanding the adoption patterns of drip irrigation technology is required for the formulation of water, energy, and land management policies. Furthermore, it is not sufficient to know whether drip irrigation is likely to be adopted in a particular field; it is equally important to determine to what extent it will be used.