Small-scale Farmers Research Articles

Using Machine Learning to Identify Diseases and Perform Sorting in Apple Fruit

Fruit diseases play a major role in global agriculture, leading to substantial crop losses and influencing food production and economic stability. In this age of Industry 4.0 the fruit sorting is an important part in the food processing wherein this work plays a vital role. In this study, a solution for the detection and classification of apple fruit diseases is proposed and experimentally validated. Deep learning models offer promise for automating disease identification using fruit images, but encounter obstacles such as therequirement for extensive training data, computational complexity, and the risk of overfitting. This study introduces an innovative convolutional neural network (CNN) architecture aimed at addressing these challenges by incorporating a reduced number of layers, thus alleviating computational burdens while maintaining performance. Additionally, augmentation techniques such as shift, shear, scaling, zoom, and flipping are employed to diversify the training set without additional image acquisition. Our CNN model is specifically trained to identify common apple crop diseases like Scab, Rot, and Blotch. Rigorous experimental evaluation demonstrates the effectiveness ofour model, achieving a remarkable classification accuracy of 95.37%. Significantly, our model demonstrates reduced storage requirements and faster execution times compared to existing deep CNN architectures, enabling deployment on handheld devices and resource-limited environments. While other CNN models may offer similar accuracy levels, our approach emphasizes efficiency and resource optimization, rendering it practical for real-world applications in agriculture. Furthermore, our CNN model exhibits resilience to environmental variations and imaging parameters, enhancing its applicability across diverse agricultural settings. By leveraging advanced machine learning techniques, the approach developed in this experimental work contributes to modernizing fruits and vegetables sorting operations in food processing, crop management practices thus promoting agricultural sustainability. The scalability and portability of our model make it suitable for deployment in both small-scale farms and large-scale agricultural operations.

Drivers of Small-Scale Farmers' Adoption of Mobile Phone Technology for Rice Production and Marketing in Dodoma Region

Despite the benefits of Mobile Phone Technology (MPT) in enhancing agricultural communication in Tanzania, a significant gap exists between the rise in mobile phone subscriptions and the actual adoption of MPT by farmers for agricultural production and marketing. This study utilised multinomial logistic regression to analyse factors influencing MPT adoption among 454 small-scale farmers in Bahi District, Dodoma Region. The findings indicated that 62 percent of the farmers adopted MPT, while 38 percent did not. Key factors influencing MPT adoption for rice production communication only included; having household members under 15 years, mobile phone ownership, time spent on using mobile phones, land size, use of hired labour, market distance and distance to all-weather roads. This study revealed that significant determinants for the adoption for rice marketing communication only were farmer’s sex, time spent on mobile phones and market distance. Further, the study showed that significant factors for the adoption for combined rice production and marketing communication were the farmer’s education level, mobile phone ownership, land size, use of family and hired labour, and market distance. Understanding these factors provides a foundation for developing interventions to increase MPT adoption among key stakeholders. Increased adoption of MPT will improve access to market information and agricultural practices in rural areas, thereby enhancing rice production and marketing and improving farmers’ livelihoods.

Conservation Agriculture is a Sustainable Approach for Future

Conservation agriculture (CA) embodies a forward-looking and sustainable approach to cultivation. It is characterized by a farming system that prioritizes sustainability through practices such as minimizing soil disturbance, maintaining permanent soil cover, and implementing crop rotations. The overarching goal is to preserve soil health and enhance productivity. This method emphasizes the optimization of natural resources, the reduction of inputs, and the enhancement of nutrient utilization efficiency. The primary focus of this review article around conservation agriculture (CA), characterized by revolutionary practices involving minimal soil disturbance (no-till, NT) and the maintenance of continuous soil cover (mulch). Agriculture heavily relies on cultivation and tillage practices. The review first explores the advantages of conventional cultivation techniques before the introduction of conservation tillage (CT), a method that originated in response to the American dust bowl of the 1930s. Subsequently, the review delves into the benefits of CA, considered an improvement over CT. The incorporation of no-till (NT), mulching, and related innovations significantly enhances soil qualities and various biotic factors within the framework of CA. Nevertheless, the promotion of Conservation Agriculture (CA) technologies encounters several challenges. These include the absence of suitable seeders tailored for small-scale farmers, conflicts between the use of CA and livestock feeding for crop residues, the practice of burning crop residues, a scarcity of skilled manpower, and the challenge of overcoming traditional attitudes towards tillage. Drawbacks of conservation agriculture encompass factors such as limited adoption, insufficient knowledge and skills, reliance on herbicides, and initial investment costs, among others.

Seasonal movements of small-island birds along habitat and elevation gradients highlights the conservation value of small-scale agroforests

Knowledge on species distributions and seasonal movement patterns within landscapes is important for understanding their ecology and roles in agroecosystems, and is critical for enabling their effective conservation and monitoring, particularly in small-island states where conservation resources are limited. We undertook bird surveys to examine species distributions across a range of agricultural land-use intensities and elevations on the Caribbean island of Grenada by collecting data over 6 repeated monthly surveys (3 wet season, 3 dry season) at sites located in a variety of habitats spread over 6–300 m elevation. We observed a gradual upslope increase in bird species diversity and abundance from the mid-wet season to the late-dry season, as well as a movement from reduced-canopy habitats to closed-canopy habitats in the dry season. The mid-elevation hillsides of Grenada consist of a diverse mosaic of closed canopy secondary forest patches, interspersed among more open agroforests and small-scale cropping and grazed areas. These agroecosystems appear to provide important habitats to birds throughout the year, especially open canopy agroforests in the wet season. We also found that open mixed agroforests contained a greater diversity of fruit, flower, and seed resources than closed canopy habitats such as secondary forest, cacao agroforests, young secondary forests, or dry forest scrub; and that plant food diversity was highest in the wet season. However, bird abundance significantly increased in closed canopy forest habitats during the dry season, suggesting that intact canopy forests provide important dry season habitat for many Grenadian birds, which may be particularly important for species in drier lowland areas experiencing more intensive agricultural land use and urban and resort development. Overall, this research demonstrates the importance of maintaining the functional connectivity of treed habitats at local and landscape scales for species conservation, as well as the contribution of diverse, small-scale agriculture to maintaining small-island bird communities.

Multi-level factors influencing climate migration willingness among small-scale farmers

Introduction: Climate change is a pressing global challenge impacting agriculture and rural communities. This study investigates the willingness to migrate against climate change among small-scale farmers and explores the associated socioeconomic and sociodemographic factors.Method: A sample of 296 small-scale farmers was randomly selected, and data were collected through face-to-face interviews. A logistic regression model was used to assess the association of multi-level factors with willingness to climate migration.Results: The results showed that different dimensions of adaptation strategies are inversely associated with willingness to migrate in response to climate change. In contrast, human capital was directly associated with the desire to migrate. Also, improving financial capital was indirectly associated with farmers’ willingness to migrate to the rural area. The study also found that education level plays a key role in increasing the probability of being willing to relocate in response to climate change. Specifically, a 1-year increase in education level was associated with a 4.2% increase in the likelihood of being willing to migrate.Discussion: Therefore, providing financial support for sustainable farming practices to alleviate the economic challenges faced by small-scale farmers, and implementing targeted capacity-building programs to enhance farmers’ adaptive capacity and promote sustainable agricultural development can be suggested. Furthermore, improving farmers’ specialized knowledge regarding the various consequences of climate migration, in conjunction with their general education, can help control and manage their migration.

A methodological framework proposal for managing risk in small-scale farming through the integration of knowledge and data analytics

IntroductionClimate change and weather variability pose significant challenges to small-scale crop production systems, increasing the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events. In this context, data modeling becomes a crucial tool for risk management and promotes producer resilience during losses caused by adverse weather events, particularly within agricultural insurance. However, data modeling requires access to available data representing production system conditions and external risk factors. One of the main problems in the agricultural sector, especially in small-scale farming, is data scarcity, which acts as a barrier to effectively addressing these issues. Data scarcity limits understanding the local-level impacts of climate change and the design of adaptation or mitigation strategies to manage adverse events, directly impacting production system productivity. Integrating knowledge into data modeling is a proposed strategy to address the issue of data scarcity. However, despite different mechanisms for knowledge representation, a methodological framework to integrate knowledge into data modeling is lacking.MethodsThis paper proposes developing a methodological framework (MF) to guide the characterization, extraction, representation, and integration of knowledge into data modeling, supporting the application of data solutions for small farmers. The development of the MF encompasses three phases. The first phase involves identifying the information underlying the MF. To achieve this, elements such as the type of knowledge managed in agriculture, data structure types, knowledge extraction methods, and knowledge representation methods were identified using the systematic review framework proposed by Kitchemhan, considering their limitations and the tools employed. In the second phase of MF construction, the gathered information was utilized to design the process modeling of the MF using the Business Process Model and Notation (BPMN).Finally, in the third phase of MF development, an evaluation was conducted using the expert weighting method.ResultsAs a result, it was possible to theoretically verify that the proposed MF facilitates the integration of knowledge into data models. The MF serves as a foundation for establishing adaptation and mitigation strategies against adverse events stemming from climate variability and change in small-scale production systems, especially under conditions of data scarcity.DiscussionThe developed MF provides a structured approach to managing data scarcity in small-scale farming by effectively integrating knowledge into data modeling processes. This integration enhances the capacity to design and implement robust adaptation and mitigation strategies, thereby improving the resilience and productivity of small-scale crop production systems in the face of climate variability and change. Future research could focus on the practical application of this MF and its impact on small-scale farming practices, further validating its effectiveness and scalability.

Environmental–Socioeconomic Factors and Technology Adoption: Empirical Evidence from Small-Scale Salt Farmers in Improving Technical Efficiency in the Madurese Coastal Area, East Java, Indonesia

Salt farming has been a hereditary occupation in the coastal communities of Madura Island; however, salt productivity in this area is still relatively low. The government has introduced a new production technology, called a geomembrane, as part of their efforts. The application of the latest technological innovations has been promoted worldwide to increase farm productivity, including in salt farming. This research aims to determine the determinants of adoption decisions for salt production technology and estimate the adoption impact on technical efficiency. The data in this study are cross-sectional from 215 small-scale salt farmers on Madura Island, East Java, Indonesia. The data were analyzed using logistic regression to identify which factors influenced farmers’ decisions to use geomembranes. The influence of adoption on farmers’ technical efficiency was then assessed using propensity score matching (PSM) and data envelopment analysis (DEA). The findings indicate that age and the dummy variables of gender, land ownership, profit-sharing involvement, and membership in the People’s Salt Business Group (KUGAR) all had a significant impact on adoption rates. The findings of controlling matched samples using the PSM process reveal that geomembrane application improves and greatly increases farmers’ technical efficiency. Those who used geomembranes displayed greater technical efficiency than those who did not. These findings imply that salt production technology should be promoted more to increase productivity, especially geomembrane adoption, through outreach and dissemination of information, including for landowners involved in the profit-sharing system. The government should keep supporting salt farmers and motivate them to adopt geomembrane technology to ensure the sustainability of salt production in the coastal communities on Madura Island.

Impact of credit use on crop productivity and gross income of smallholder farmers: a propensity score matching approach

BackgroundAgriculture is Ethiopia’s principal economic activity, employing the vast majority of the population, however, smallholder farmers in the country face long-standing challenges, including low levels of production, low income, and less credit use. This study aimed to analyze the impact of access to credit on crop productivity and income among small-scale farmers in the study area.MethodsWe conducted a cross-sectional study from January 1st to 30th, 2022. Primary data were collected from purposely selected seven (7) kebele of the district based on potential users of agricultural credit. Then the impact was investigated by applying the propensity score matching technique. A Probit regression model was used to determine factors associated with credit use. The significance of the variables was decided at a 5% level of significance.ResultsIn our study, a total sample of 347 smallholder farmers were randomly selected, out of which 42.9% were credit-users while 59.1% were non-users. Regarding sources of credit use, Vision Fund was the most commonly used source of credit with 67.8% of users, followed by the Omo Microfinance institution with 22.1%. Sex of the farmer, age of the farmer, existence collateral, farm size, attitude towards risk, extension service, membership in credit institutions, road access, and number of total livestock units in tropical livestock units (TLU) had significant effects on credit use at a 5% level of significance. Moreover, the estimates showed that utilizing credit resulted in a rise in crop productivity in current market value and total yearly income by 19,302.44 and 18,009.63 respectively.ConclusionOur study suggested that credit use had a considerable impact on crop productivity and total annual income. As a result, the study recommended that the government’s rural finance policy agenda should prioritize opening different branches near farmers, improving credit usability, and providing more training programs to smallholder farmers to improve their skills and help reduce the problems that impede their use of agricultural credit.

Efficiency of Agricultural Insurance in Facilitating Modern Agriculture Development: From the Perspective of Production Factor Allocation

Agricultural insurance is instrumental in consolidating the gains of poverty alleviation and advancing rural revitalization. It significantly aids in the efficient allocation of agricultural production factors, which in turn enhances agricultural output and bolsters the evolution of modern agriculture. Therefore, utilizing data from 583 household surveys and employing endogenous transformation and intermediary effect models, this paper analyzes the production factor allocation effect and specific mechanism of agricultural insurance. It focuses on small-scale farmers and new agricultural operators, exploring how insurance contributes to the advancement of modern agricultural practices. The results show the following: (1) Agriculture insurance can significantly affect the agricultural scale input behavior of farmers such as land input scale and input scale, agricultural machinery application behavior such as the degree of mechanization and water conservancy application, agricultural technology adoption behavior, and planting structure selection behavior, thereby helping to modernize agriculture. (2) There is heterogeneity in the impact of agriculture insurance on the allocation of production factors for small farmers and new agricultural operators. For small farmers, agriculture insurance has a significant promoting effect on their agricultural machinery application behavior, agricultural technology adoption behavior, and planting structure selection behavior. For new agricultural operators, agriculture insurance significantly promotes their agricultural scale input behavior, agricultural machinery application behavior, and agricultural technology adoption behavior. (3) In terms of the mechanism of action, agriculture insurance mainly promotes agricultural scale input behavior through land transfer, facilitates agricultural machinery application behavior by purchasing agricultural machinery equipment and services, encourages agricultural technology adoption behavior by strengthening agricultural technology training, and enhances professional production levels by increasing the scale of insured planting, thereby contributing to the development of modern agriculture. Based on this, several policy suggestions have been proposed. These include enhancing the directionality of agriculture insurance policies, improving the collaborative interaction mechanism between agriculture insurance and agricultural credit financing, and adopting certain reward and punishment measures to curb moral hazard.

Harnessing the potential of tiger nut (Cyperus esculentus L.) for food and nutritional security, good health, and economic development of Ghana or Africa. A review

Tiger nuts (Cyperus esculentus L.) offer significant benefits for food security, health, and economic growth, particularly in Ghana and Africa. As a nutritious food source, they are rich in dietary fiber, vitamins, and minerals such as iron, potassium, and magnesium. Additionally, they contain healthy unsaturated fats and phytochemicals like flavonoids, phenolic acids, and tannins, which combat inflammation, cancer, and act as antioxidants. Beyond their health benefits, tiger nuts have economic potential. They can be processed into value-added products like milk, flour, oil, and snacks. These products find markets both locally and internationally, aiding the economies of tiger nut-producing countries. They offer an alternative sweetener and dairy substitute, beneficial for those with lactose intolerance. Tiger nuts also contribute to agricultural sustainability. Their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen improves soil fertility and crop productivity, benefiting small-scale farmers in developing countries. This can help reduce poverty and enhance food security. Despite these advantages, further research and investment are necessary to fully understand their health impacts and optimize cultivation and processing methods. Such efforts can promote tiger nut production and consumption, particularly in poorer nations, leading to sustainable development and improved livelihoods for farmers and communities. This review aims to highlight how tiger nuts (Cyperus esculentus L.) can enhance food security, health, and economic growth in Ghana and Africa. Tiger nuts are a valuable food source with untapped potential. This review examines the nutrition, health benefits, and economic impact of tiger nuts, especially for small-scale farmers and food availability. This paper underscores the importance of further research and investment in promoting tiger nuts as a valuable resource for Ghana, Africa, and the world.

Metal content, bioaccumulation, translocation, and health risk assessment of root vegetables grown in KwaZulu-Natal small-scale farms of South Africa.

Metal uptake by vegetables is becoming a threat to the life of consumers. Therefore, continuous monitoring of metals in vegetables and soils is becoming a necessity. In this study, the occurrence of 18 metals in amadumbe (Colocasia esculenta L.), sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas L.), potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.), and carrots (Daucus carrota L.) grown in small-scale South African agricultural farms was monitored using inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy. All the 18 investigated elements were detected in soils and different vegetative plants parts. Bioaccumulation factors indicated the transfer of selected metals from soils into the plant roots. Toxic metals Cd, Cr, and Pb had their concentrations exceeding the maximum permissible levels set by the World Health Organization in the edible parts of all root vegetables. Cd and Pb varied between 18.89 and 19.19mgkg-1 and 10.46 and 11.46mgkg-1, respectively, while Cr remained constant at 16.78mgkg-1. The exact metals together with As and Ni had their total hazard quotients exceeding the threshold value of 1, which indicated that the daily consumption of the investigated root vegetables is likely to pose health risks to both adults and children. Therefore, this study points out to a possibility of toxic health effects that could arise when these vegetables are consumed daily.

Agricultural extension and farm entrepreneurship: evidence from small-scale farmers of high-density plantations in Kashmir

ABSTRACT Purpose The study examines the transformative trends in agriculture by analysing the adoption patterns of high-density plantations (HDP) among small-scale apple farmers in Kashmir. It explores the factors shaping the adoption process and the role played by extension services in fostering this adoption. Design Employing a mixed-method approach, this study investigates how extension services influence the adoption of high-density farming and farm entrepreneurship. Utilising cross-sectional data from 160 small-scale farmer households, the research employs a recursive bivariate probit regression model to unveil the relationship between extension services and the adoption of high-density farming. Findings The findings reveal a crucial link between small-scale farmers’ adoption decisions and their access to agricultural extension services. Land size, credit, and subsidies play key roles in influencing both HDP adoption and extension service accessibility, highlighting the interconnectedness of financial support in promoting sustainable agriculture. Furthermore, early adopters showcase innovative behaviour driven by production advantages and sustainability concerns. Practical implications It underscores the need for targeted interventions to promote sustainable agricultural practices and enhance extension service accessibility. Recognising the positive impact of credit and subsidy availability on both HDP adoption and access to extension services emphasises the interconnected role of financial support in driving sustainable practices. Theoretical implications The paper integrates theoretical frameworks from agricultural adoption, extension and entrepreneurship while contributing a more comprehensive understanding of sustainable and transformed food systems. Originality This study develops a crucial framework that underscores the significance of public extension services for small-scale farmers in the Himalayan regions. Additionally, it enhances understanding of the potential benefits of high-density farming and farm entrepreneurship for sustainable agriculture and transforming food systems for rural development globally.

Farmers’ Perception and Practice of Soil Fertility Management and Conservation in the Era of Digital Soil Information Systems in Southwest Nigeria

This study assessed the perception and use of digital applications for soil fertility management and conservation strategies among small-scale crop farmers in southwest Nigeria. A total of 376 farmers were randomly selected across the six southwest states. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The majority of the farmers relied on perception and other non-scientific approaches such as the appearance of weeds and performance of crops in the previous season to assess soil fertility. Only 1.1% and 0.3% of the farmers assessed soil fertility through soil tests and digital applications, respectively. Most farmers adopted bush fallowing and the use of inorganic fertilizers to improve soil fertility. Although 4.8% of the farmers indicated that they had digital applications on their mobile phones, only 2.9% claimed to have used these. More than half (56.4%) of the farmers stated that a lack of awareness of the existence of digital applications and internet-enabled telephones were the reasons they have not been able to use digital applications. The majority of the farmers (97.3%) indicated their willingness to embrace the use of new farm decision digital applications which could provide more information, especially on soil fertility, if introduced. More extensive services focusing on older, less literate farmers and farmers who hitherto did not belong to any farmers’ association are advocated for in order to encourage the use of digital applications and soil fertility management and conservation practices.

Crop rotation as an economic strategy for small-scale farmers: evidence from Punjab, Pakistan

This study examined the economic feasibility of crop rotation as a farming technique for small-scale farmers in Punjab, Pakistan, in 2022. Employing a mixed-methods approach, the study integrated qualitative and quantitative data to comprehensively assess the financial impact of crop rotation. The research focused on two key regions in Punjab renowned for small-scale farming: Sargodha and Chakwal. These areas were selected due to their prevalent small-scale farming practices and diverse agricultural methods. The study included a control group of farms that did not practice crop rotation, alongside farms actively implementing this technique. Through surveys of farm owners, input costs (such as seeds, fertilizers, and labor), market prices, crop yields, and total farm revenues were quantified over a three-year period. Soil health indicators were evaluated through soil sample analyses. Qualitative insights into farmers' perspectives on the benefits, challenges, and financial decision-making processes related to crop-rotation were gathered via in-depth interviews and regional focus groups. The findings from 2022 demonstrated advantages for farms practicing crop-rotation, evidenced by consistently higher yields and reduced seed costs. These farms also reported significantly greater profitability. The qualitative analysis highlighted local dynamics influencing the adoption of crop rotation. The study underscored the need to address challenges such as weather fluctuations and market conditions. The insights from this 2022 research can greatly benefit policymakers and agricultural practitioners in promoting sustainable farming practices among small-scale farmers in Punjab, Pakistan. Crop rotation emerges as a strategy capable of enhancing agricultural productivity and bolstering the financial resilience of small-scale farming communities.

The Political Economy of Seigneurial Lordship in Flanders, c.1250–1570

Abstract The recent debate between Chris Wickham and Shami Ghosh exposes different interpretations of the political economy of Europe, with Wickham arguing for the persistence of the feudal economy up to about 1700, and Ghosh imagining a distinct phase in which economic development was not yet capitalist but was no longer decisively shaped by the demands of lords. This article contributes to the discussion with the story of Flanders, where two contrasting trajectories interlocked. On the one hand, coastal Flanders saw the rise of agrarian capitalism from the fourteenth century onwards, when small-scale farms were amalgamated into large agricultural enterprises that relied on the wage-labour of dispossessed peasants and their descendants as well as temporary labour migration from nearby regions. Inland Flanders, by contrast, saw the persistence of a peasant society dominated by small-scale landownership. ‘Middle-class lordship’ was critically important for this divergence. The peasants of inland Flanders acquired an unusual measure of control over seigneurial courts and their regulatory capacities, using them to stimulate the commercialization of society while thwarting experiments with agrarian capitalism. The Flemish evidence thus complicates narratives about feudalism in Europe, showing that the spectrum of possibilities in the political economy of lordship deserves closer scrutiny.

Small farms in Spain common agricultural policy (2023-2027): A critical review

The role of small-scale farming in forming a sustainable food system is significant due to its greater ability to support biodiversity, ensure food and job availability for the population in remote rural areas, and preserve the identity of local production. Accordingly, any Commission Agricultural Policy reform requires evaluation from this perspective. The aim of this study was to critically assess the potential for adapting the needs of small-scale farming in Spain's new Commission Agricultural Policy Strategic Plan and to provide recommendations to address identified imbalances. Consequently, an analytical review of the agricultural sector was conducted, guided by statistical information, to investigate the main trends in the transformative changes within Spain's farming structure. The analysis of the political document allowed for the identification of component changes in line with the agricultural policy reform. The method of analytical-critical thinking was used to analyse the payment structure and fair distribution of funds for small-scale farming. As a result, the study identified weaknesses and disparities in Spain's new Commission Agricultural Policy Strategic Plan and provided relevant recommendations that could facilitate better adaptation of small farms to the new agricultural policy. The provided recommendations can serve as a basis for further scientific discussion and improvement of agricultural policy. This research can be useful for stakeholders in making political decisions to better adapt to the stated ambitious goals of the new Commission Agricultural Policy Strategic Plan

Digital agricultural technology services and farmers’ willingness to choose digital production technology in Sichuan province, China

IntroductionDigital agricultural technology service has the characteristics of high efficiency, convenience and flexibility, and plays an important role in the process of Chinese agricultural digitalization, which is of great significance for realizing the modernization and intelligent development of agricultural production.MethodsBased on micro-survey data of small-scale farmers in Sichuan Province, this study utilizes the OLS method and the mediation effect model to investigate the impact of digital agricultural technology services on farmers’ willingness to adopt digital production technologies and its underlying mechanisms.ResultsThe results indicate that digital agricultural technology services effectively enhance farmers’ willingness to adopt digital production technologies, especially among those engaged in cooperative. Further analysis of mechanisms suggests that digital agricultural technology services influence farmers’ choices of household production and management methods by expanding their information channels, enhancing their cognition of digital production technologies, and facilitating access to technology. Moreover, heterogeneous analysis reveals significant differences in the willingness of farmers with varying levels of digital literacy to adopt digital production technologies. Digital agricultural technology services have a more pronounced impact on the willingness of highly digitally literate farmers.DiscussionThe findings of this paper deepen our comprehension of the operational mechanisms of digital agricultural technology services in the context of agricultural development, and advocate for policy recommendations such as enhancing the supply of digital agricultural technology services, strengthening the role of new agricultural entities, improving farmers’ digital literacy training, and enhancing policy support systems.

Socio-economic and environmental trade-offs in Amazonian protected areas and Indigenous territories revealed by assessing competing land uses.

Protected area (PA) assessments rarely evaluate socio-economic and environmental impacts relative to competing land uses, limiting understanding of socio-environmental trade-offs from efforts to protect 30% of the globe by 2030. Here we assess deforestation and poverty outcomes (fiscal income, income inequality, sanitation and literacy) between 2000 and 2010 of strict PAs (SPAs), sustainable-use PAs (SUPAs) and Indigenous territories (ITs) compared with different land uses (agriculture and mining concessions) across ~5,500 census tracts in the Brazilian Legal Amazon. ITs reduced deforestation relative to all alternative land uses (48-83%) but had smaller socio-economic benefits compared with other protection types and land uses (18-36% depending on outcome), indicating that Indigenous communities experience socio-economic trade-offs. By contrast, SUPAs, and potentially SPAs, did not reduce deforestation relative to small-scale agriculture (landholdings <10 ha) but did so relative to larger agricultural landholdings (70-82%). Critically, these reductions in deforestation frequently occurred without negative socio-economic outcomes. By contrast, ITs and SUPAs protected against deforestation from mining, but at the cost of smaller improvements in income and inequality. Our results suggest that although PAs in the Brazilian Legal Amazon substantially reduced deforestation without compromising local socio-economic development, efforts to secure Indigenous rights need additional interventions to ensure these communities are not further disadvantaged.

The impact of extension delivery through private local service providers on production outcomes of small-scale aquaculture farmers in Bangladesh

ABSTRACT Purpose This study delves into the effectiveness of local service providers (LSP) in improving production outcomes of small-scale aquaculture farmers in Bangladesh. Design/methodology/approach To gauge the effectiveness of LSPs, the research employs a performance-based assessment approach, focusing on 1653 fish farming households distributed across four different participation levels. Essentially, it compared quantifiable variables like the number of species cultured, productivity, proportion of fish sold and revenue metrics of the LSP-trained farmers against a control group that has not received training from LSPs. Data analysis was conducted with Multivalued Treatment Effects (MTE) estimated using an augmented inverse-probability weighting method that allows for heterogeneous treatment effects. Findings Findings revealed that farmers who received the LSP extension training exhibited a significant increase in all outcomes compared to their counterparts. The LSP extension participating farmers are more likely to adopt better management practices like improved feeding routines, dike constructions, pond cleanliness, and fish growth monitoring. Practical implications LSP extension model with enhanced capacity can be a catalyst for improved production of small-scale aquaculture farmers. Theoretical implications This study contributes to a research agenda related to the efficiency of emerging pluralistic extension service systems that favors decentralization, privatization, and outsourcing of extension service, and their capability to enhance the production outcomes of small-scale farmers. Originality/value This study addresses an important research gap in the agricultural extension literature, which is the value-for-money of Local Service Providers, and their capability to enhance the production outcomes of small-scale farmers.

Assessing interpreter’s disagreements in land cover reference data collection from historical Landsat time series in Amazon

ABSTRACT Land cover information, derived from the classification of Remote Sensing images, is only useful if accompanied by a rigorous accuracy assessment, usually dependent on reference samples. As field data can be very rare for multi-temporal analysis, many studies use samples visually interpreted from Remote Sensing images. This subjective process is prone to errors in interpretation, leading to uncertainties not fully quantified in the reference sample collection of historical time series. We evaluated the agreement rate among independent interpreters in the identification of land cover classes assigned to pixels for yearly Landsat observations from 1984 to 2020, in the Lower Tapajós Basin region (within the Brazilian Amazon). Considering 10 classes, we found that sets of three interpreters completely disagreed on the label of 14.8% of the pixels for each year, and completely agreed in less than half (39.6%). These values change to 2.7% and 68.8% when we consider only five classes in the analysis. We observed time-dependent variations in agreement for specific land cover classes: whereas forest areas tend to present an increase in the disagreement rate over time, land cover types that happen only in previously deforested areas tend to present a higher proportion of pixels with better agreement rates. Disagreements tend to be higher in pixels identified as borders or near borders between targets. However, there is a non-negligible amount of disagreements in pixels identified as not borders caused by limitations derived from the unit of analysis, image composition techniques, and intrinsic similarities among classes. We highlight problems with the identification of classes that happen in complex spatiotemporal patterns (Secondary Vegetation, Small-scale Agriculture, and Degraded Forest). These results alert to possible inconsistencies in reference samples collected for the accuracy assessment of land cover time series and the correspondent values of the calculated accuracy indexes.