Small Pine Research Articles

Folklore in the News (And, Incidentally, on the Net)

INTRODUCTION Do you remember the Beatles' song Day in the Life from their Sgt. Pepper album? It began with the line read the news today, oh boy! Here's the sort of thing that makes me say Oh Boy and reach for the scissors when I peruse the daily papers and spot a bit of folklore in the news. November 8, 1960, the day John F. Kennedy was elected president, the Dear Abby column included a letter from a teenager telling the urban legend about Hookman on Lovers' Lane and commenting don't know whether it's true or not, it doesn't matter to me. April 22, 1964, following the great Easter Weekend Alaskan earthquake, a news report about children in Kodiak playing amid wreckage on a wave-- devastated beach, a new game they had invented called Earthquake and Tidal Wave. Fast forward to 1978 during one round of stalled talks between the United States and the Soviet Union for the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (dubbed SALT by the press). A Bill Mauldin cartoon showed Presidents Carter and Brezhnev sitting across the table from each other with a giant spilled salt shaker between them. Each man was throwing a handful of salt over his left shoulder and exclaiming YOU spilled it! May 26, 1980, following the eruption of Mt. St. Helens, a Lewis County, Washington, sheriff's deputy was quoted in the paper as saying It's blacker [here] than the inside of a cow. November 6,1987: a photograph in the University of Utah student newspaper, Daily Utah Chronicle, showed the topping-off of the steelwork for the new Primary Children's Hospital. A small pine tree was attached to the topmost beam, and the caption identified this as a centuries-old tradition...to bring good luck and safety to construction workers and those who later use the building. April 5, 1995: a letter to the editor of the Deseret News commenting on the use of a recorded cuckoo-bird call at some Salt Lake City intersections to signal that the pedestrian-crossing light was on. She wrote: It reminds me of my mother singing [this] to me as a child, The cuckoo is a pretty bird. She singeth as she flies. She bringeth us good tidings. She telleth us no lies. . Versions of that old folk lyric are still sung in the southern mountains of the United States. My most recent clipping. Back to Dear Abby: I found this at the end of her column for April 13, 2000: DEAR ABBY letter from Outraged, whose stepmother wanted to be buried between the woman's father and her birth mother, reminded me of the story about the man who remarried after his first wife died. He said when he died that he wanted to be buried between the two wives, but tilt me toward Tillie.-Louise in Largo, Florida. That story should ring a bell for students of Utah folklore. Down in Sanpete county this is one of the favorite Brother Peterson Yarns (as folklorist/raconteur Hector Lee used to call them), told in dialect about a Danish immigrant who is a polygamist. There the punchline was Yoost tilt me a little towards Tillie. FOLKLORE IN THE NEWS examples I have quoted all resulted from my long habit of reading daily papers closely and clipping examples of folklore, and my essay here was directly suggested by a comment that Alta Fife once made to a reporter. More of that in a moment; first I want to say something about the Fifes. I first met the Fifes in the summer of 1958 when I was a graduate student at Indiana University; they had come through Bloomington for a few days to speak to us at the Folklore Institute. Their landmark book on Mormon folklore, Saints of Sage and Saddle, had been published two years earlier by the Indiana University Press, and the Fifes were listed on the Institute program as specialists in Mormon folklore and cowboy songs, two topics that I had little interest in. But I was impressed by Professor Richard Dorson, my advisor, and his enthusiasm for the Fife's work, and I especially noted Dorson's generous use of excerpts and summaries from the Fife's book in his own textbook which I was helping to proofread and index at about the same time. …

Lignolit Properties and Application

In this paper the main assumptions are presented, concerning the production of new generation of wood-based products made from small size wood pieces, on the basis of solutions included in the patent concerning: The method of disintegrating plant stems, particulary of wood, in the process of producing ligno-celulose products and machines for this disintegration. The test proved that small size pine wood pieces disintegrated with the method of cyclic splitting can produce wood-based material of high strength quality. The tested wood-based material due to its characteristic structure and high mechanical properties was given a transient name of lignolit (lignum-wood, lite-solid) – a wood-based materials with parameters resembling those of natural wood.

Evidence for the widespread occurrence of ancient forests on cliffs

AbstractAim The objective of this work was to determine if the existence of ancient forests on cliffs was specific to the Niagara Escarpment, Canada, or part of a globally widespread pattern.Location Sixty‐five cliff sites were visited in five countries in the temperate climatic zone, and trees were sampled for age and growth rate on forty‐six of these.Methods Two hundred and twenty‐four core samples or cross‐sections were taken from trees on cliffs that varied in height, aspect, rock‐type, and exposure. General observations were also made of regeneration of the tree species forming the mature canopy, and other habitat conditions.Results The evidence shows that ancient slow‐growing forest occurs on most cliffs. Age and growth rate distributions were similar at all treed sites. Small‐statured Thuja, Juniperus, or Taxus stems with age estimates in excess of 1000 years were found in the United States, the United Kingdom and France, and small Pinus and Quercus stems nearly 400 years in Germany. There was a high rate of recurrence of plants in the genera Polypodium, Asplenium, Cystopteris, Campanula, Rosa, Prunus, Hedera, and Sorbus. Most of the sites appear to be habitats of completely natural origin.Conclusions We conclude that ancient natural forest is a normal feature of cliffs, at least in the temperate zone.

Spatial patterns of soil and vegetation in a 40-year-old slash pine (Pinus elliottii) forest in the Coastal Plain of South Carolina, U.S.A.

A study was conducted at the Savannah River Site in a 40-year-old slash pine (Pinus elliottii Engelm.) plantation in South Carolina to characterize the spatial patterns of soil, forest floor, and plant community variables and to investigate correlations among the variables. Spatial soil and litter samples were collected on five 0.25-ha plots. The spatial patterns of the variables were characterized by global variance, autocorrelation range, and patchiness. The cross-variable relationships were explored using Pearson's correlation tests to examine functional heterogeneity (i.e., to determine if structural heterogeneity reflected ecological processes). Variances of the variables calculated without regard to spatial position (i.e., global variance) were generally low. Average range of spatial autocorrelation was about 58 m for the forest floor variables, 11 m for soil variables, 11 m for basal area of large pines (>30 cm diameter at breast height), and less than 11 m for basal area of smaller pines or other woody species. Few strong spatial correlations among the forest floor and soil variables were observed. Spatial patterns of pines and hardwoods were weakly correlated with litter quality patterns and soil nitrogen. We conclude that the sample plots were generally homogeneous and that differences in soil resource levels were probably too small to influence spatial pattern of vegetation in this 40-year-old plantation.

Spatial patterns of soil and vegetation in a 40-year-old slash pine (<i>Pinus elliottii</i>) forest in the Coastal Plain of South Carolina, U.S.A.

A study was conducted at the Savannah River Site in a 40-year-old slash pine (Pinus elliottii Engelm.) plantation in South Carolina to characterize the spatial patterns of soil, forest floor, and plant community variables and to investigate correlations among the variables. Spatial soil and litter samples were collected on five 0.25-ha plots. The spatial patterns of the variables were characterized by global variance, autocorrelation range, and patchiness. The cross-variable relationships were explored using Pearson's correlation tests to examine functional heterogeneity (i.e., to determine if structural heterogeneity reflected ecological processes). Variances of the variables calculated without regard to spatial position (i.e., global variance) were generally low. Average range of spatial autocorrelation was about 58 m for the forest floor variables, 11 m for soil variables, 11 m for basal area of large pines (>30 cm diameter at breast height), and less than 11 m for basal area of smaller pines or other ...

COMPARING TREE-RING CHRONOLOGIES AND REPEATED TIMBER INVENTORIES AS FOREST MONITORING TOOLS

Historical information on forest growth is essential to evaluate and under- stand change in managed and unmanaged forests. Two ground-truth nondestructive sources of information on interannual to interdecadal changes are (a) repeated timber inventories and (b) tree-ring chronologies. I present here a case study of how those two types of data can complement and benefit each other. At the Gus Pearson Research Natural Area, a ponderosa pine stand near Flagstaff (Arizona, USA), timber inventories were repeated by the U.S. Forest Service from 1920 to 1990. The analysis of those data has revealed a decline of individual tree growth over the 20th century, attributed to increased stand density. Monthly precipitation and temperature at the study area showed no overall trend from 1910 to 1990. Tree-ring data collected at the area after 1990, and spanning the last few centuries, were compared to the inventory data to represent growth trends. Periodic basal area in- crement computed from forest inventories showed parallel trends but higher absolute values (especially for small pines) than periodic basal area increment computed from increment cores. Among selected ways of developing a tree-ring chronology, average ring area closely matched repeated forest inventories for 20th century trends and revealed that decadal-scale growth rates in the 1900s have been anomalous compared to the previous 300 years. The mensurational and dendrochronological approaches to forest monitoring showed advantages and disadvantages. Repeated forest inventories quantified growth of individual trees and of the entire stand, thus providing a complete picture, even in retrospect; but they had longer-than-annual resolution, and covered only the last decades. Dendrochronological data quantified annual xylem growth of individual trees over their whole life span, thus placing recent growth trends into a much longer historical perspective; but they had limited spatial coverage and could lead to different trends depending on the type of standardization option. Overall, the combination of both approaches is recommended for evaluating changes of forest growth at multiannual scales.

Moose browsing in young Scots pine stands in relation to forest management

The effects of moose browsing in young Scots pine stands were studied in southern Finland during 1993–1994. The influence of moose on tree species composition starts during the early development of young plantations. A considerable proportion of small pine seedlings was damaged, and hence the future development of the stand was retarded. The average biomass consumption of pine was relatively low increasing slightly with the density of pine seedlings. Browsing of pine was common in the patches with high density of preferred and highly utilized deciduous tree species, aspen and rowan. As elucidated by means of exclosure studies, the availability of tree species preferred and highly utilized by moose, e.g. rowan, is likely to be reduced also by early silvicultural cleaning. Removing excess birches by cleaning appears to be needed even in high-density moose areas to regulate the competition between tree species, especially the birch/pine height ratio. At the present average moose density of 0.4–0.6 km −2 forest land, considerable depletion of highly palatable tree species occurs locally in high-density moose ranges. When optimizing the development of young stands, silvicultural treatment timing and browsing by moose should be taken into account. It is considered important when combining forest and wildlife management to identify the conditions under which damage, overconsumption and possible long-term effects on forest ecosystems take place.

Captive fledgling American kestrels prefer to play with objects resembling natural prey

Object play may be a mechanism by which young predators acquire skills in manipulating prey, as well as physical strength and endurance. It has also been proposed that fledgling raptors play with live or dead prey if available, but would play with surrogates such as sticks or grass if not. Different objects were offered to captive fledgling American kestrels, Falco sparverius, to test whether they prefer to play with objects resembling prey. Individuals were divided into two groups: those in treatment A were offered mouse mimics, along with one of four objects (large and small pine cones, long and short twigs) which were alternated daily. Individuals in treatment B were offered bottle corks, and the same type of alternative objects as in treatment A. There were no significant differences in the mean number of play instances of birds in each of the two treatments (total of 506 instances). However, fledglings in treatment A played significantly more with the mouse mimics, whereas fledglings in treatment B played with the different objects in proportion to their availability. These results support the hypothesis that young raptors devote a relatively fixed amount of time to object manipulation, and that they prefer to manipulate objects resembling natural prey. The same set of objects were offered to adult American kestrels, but they were never manipulated. This suggests that object play has a function in the maturation of hunting skills of young raptors.

Decadal-scale dynamics at the Gus Pearson Natural Areas: evidence for inverse (a)symmetric competition?

The Gus Pearson Natural Area is one of the longest maintained individual-based forest-monitoring sites in the world. It is an 800 × 400 m plot established in 1908 within pristine ponderosa pine (Pinusponderosa Dougl. ex Laws, van scopulorum) forest near Flagstaff, Arizona. I quantified decadal-scale growth trends of individual trees and of the entire stand from timber inventories repeated at 10-year intervals between 1920 and 1990. A mixed linear model for longitudinal data was used to test significance of temporal trends. Stand density increased throughout the 20th century because of successful regeneration pulses, active fire control, and no tree cutting. Aboveground growth rates of the stand as a whole did not change significantly from 1920 to 1990, but individual growth rates declined. Mixed linear model results indicated that decadal basal area increment of large pines declined more than that of small pines. In 1920–1930 large pines were growing faster than small pines, but by 1980–1990 large pines were growing slower than small pines. Since the number of small pines multiplied and the number of large pines changed slightly, I inferred that competition for resources was more detrimental for large pines than for small pines.

Harborage Preferences of American and Smokybrown Cockroaches (Dictyoptera: Blattidae) for Common Landscape Materials

Harborage preferences of American, Periplaneta americana (L.), and smokybrown, P. fuliginisa (Serville), cockroaches were determined in laboratory experiments. None of the potential harborages [juniper branches, Juniperus horizontalis L.; pine, Pinus taeda L.; straw; soil; rocks; or grass, Eremochloa ophiuroides (Munro) Hack, thatch] were toxic in continuous exposure tests. None of the harborages were repellent to American cockroaches, but in Ebeling choice box tests smokybrown cockroaches were significantly and consistently repelled by dry soil (mean ± SEM, 6.17 ± 0.68%). Tested with mixed-stage groups, juniper branches were preferred to all other potential harborages by all American cockroach stages. Smokybrown cockroaches also preferred juniper branches, but significant proportions were also found harboring under pine straw and rocks. Tested with single stages, small and medium American and smokybrown cockroach nymphs preferred pine straw rather than juniper indicating an interaction between cockroach stages and harborage selection by small and medium nymphs. Even though relative humidity was significantly greater (45.4 ± 2.2%) under juniper, light intensity was lower (7.9 ± 3.9 lux) under pine straw. Smaller nymphs selected harborages with smaller interstitial spaces than larger nymphs; pine straw had the smallest interstices of any of the tested harborage materials. Harborage selection by American and smokybrown cockroaches is mediated by the physical characteristics of the harborage and the presence of conspecifics.

Loblolly Pine (Pinus taeda) Irregular Shelterwood Stand Development and Red-Cockaded Woodpecker Management—A Case Study

Abstract The overstory and midstory of a loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) irregular shelterwood stand in the Coastal Plain of South Carolina were inventoried 17 yr after a sawtimber and pulpwood harvest and again 12 yr later. At the time of the first inventory, a dense (2482 stems ha-1), small (7.3 cm average dbh, 7.9 m average height) midstory pine population had developed underneath a relatively sparse (10.4 m² ha-1), tall (24 m)pine overstory. Although 38% of the midstory stems and 9% of the overstory stems died during the 12 yr study period, the stand was too dense to have any value as a red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis) colony site even though the overstory pines survived in sufficient numbers and were large enough to provide potential cavity trees. The stand had ample basal area and stocking of pines greater than 25 cm dbh to be acceptable foraging habitat. Extrapolating the 1987 diameter distribution 12 growing seasons indicated that the midstory would continue self-thinning to 100 stems ha-1, and the overstory would grow to about 10 stems ha-1 in all dbh classes. South. J. Appl. For. 20(2):90-93.

Response of understorey vegetation and Scots pine root systems to fertilization at multiple deficiency stress

The stump and root systems of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and field-layer vegetation were sampled before and three growing seasons after drainage and fertilization of a low-shrub pine bog in SE Norway. Although the understorey vegetation roots responded significantly to nutrient application with higher concentrations of Ca and P, root biomass weights did not change. The fine and small pine roots responded with higher N, Ca, P and S concentrations, while those of Mn and Zn were significantly reduced. The NPK-application resulted in significantly higher pine root biomass. Relative to the total stores in the root zone the amounts of most elements in roots shifted to higher ratios at NPK-application. High figures for K, B and Mn indicate tight biochemical cycles of these elements. Compared to totals in above and below ground biomass, major parts of Fe and Pb were held by the roots. In contrast the field layer roots kept a very small per cent of total K, while the pine roots were low in Mn. The understorey vegetation was primarily restricted by P-deficiency, while the pine trees were also restricted by low supply of N. The field and the tree layer species seem to differ with respect to required nutrient concentrations in the root zone. These characteristics are important for direction and extent of successional changes after fertilization in low-shrub pine bog ecosystems.

Modeling the water balance of a small Pinus radiata catchment.

An hourly biophysical model was used to calculate the water balance over a period of one year for an 8.7-ha catchment with a closed-canopy, 13-year-old Pinus radiata D. Don forest in the central North Island, New Zealand. Components of the model are transpiration from the dry tree canopy, evaporation from the partially wet tree canopy and stems, evaporation from the understory and soil, and drainage from a single-layer root zone. The model requires input of hourly weather data (net radiation, air and wet bulb temperatures, windspeed, and rainfall), tree stand characteristics (average height, tree number, leaf area index), physical characteristics of the site (root zone depth, relationship between root zone matric potential and volumetric water content, the relationship between the rate of drainage from the root zone and volumetric water content, and the area of open-stream channels). A submodel of the response of stomatal conductance to air saturation deficit and root zone matric potential is also required. Tree transpiration (704 mm year(-1) or 50% of annual rainfall) was a dominant component of the catchment water balance. Estimated evaporation from the wet tree canopy was 203 mm year(-1) (15%). Evaporation from the understory was much less, amounting to 94 mm year(-1) (7%) and an increase in water storage for the 3.5 m root zone depth was estimated to be 53 mm year(-1) (4%). Estimated daily rates of drainage generally agreed well with measurements of streamflow, although estimated annual drainage (349 mm year(-1), 24%) exceeded measured streamflow (234 mm year(-1)). The significance of the results is discussed in relation to closure of the hydrologic balance.

The Jewish Community of Salonika: The End of a Long History

The Jewish Community of Salonika: The End of a Long History Anthony Molho Brown University In memory of Flora Hasson Molho (1875-1969) Una descrizione di Zaira quale è oggi dovrebbe conteneré tutto il passato di Zaira. Ma la città non dice il suo passato, lo contiene come le linee d' una mano, scritto negli spigoli délie vie, nelle griglie délie finestre, neglie scorrimano délie scale, nelle antenne dei parafulmini, nelle äste délie bandiere, ogni segmento rigato a sua volta di graffi, seghettature, intagli, svirgole. ítalo Calvino, Le città invisibili (Torino: Einaudi, 1972), 18-191 Salonika, Greece's second-largest city, does not often attract the world's attention. Neither its scenic setting at the head of a natural bay across which, on clear days, one can discern the outlines ofMount Olympus, nor its numerous and beautiful Byzantine churches, nor even its easy access to attractive seaside resorts seem to offer much incentive to outside visitors. Occasionally, some spectacular event, if only momentarily, focuses the world's attention on the city. This happened in 1948, during the Greek civil war, with the assassination—why and by whom remain unclear—of the American journalist John Polk. Then, in 1963, another murder once again put the city's name in the headlines ofthe international press, when George Lambrakis, a Greek deputy of the Left, was murdered by a gang of rightwing thugs. In the past 25 years, the city, largely ignored by outside observers, has been transformed by modern prosperity. Nearly doubled in size, its population now is about to surpass one million people. Its streets are clogged by constantly chaotic and noisy traffic, and pollution, although not quite at the levels of Athens or Mexico City, has, on occasion, posed a health hazard to the city's inhabitants. A building boom fueled by vast quantities of speculative capital has resulted in the destruction of well over half the city's older buildings and their replacement by modern, tall structures which now dominate its skyline. The surrounding hills, which less than 30 years ago were quiet oases of small pine forests, now look scarred, mutilated by everexpanding residential neighborhoods. This transformation echoes changes experienced by other ancient cities along the Mediterranean basin and the Middle East. In this sense, Salonika 's emergence from an important provincial city to an urban metropo100 The Jewish Community of Salonika lis is far from unique: Athens, Izmir, Alexandria, Tunis, Catania have shared the same experience. In each ofthese cities change was welcomed for the material advantage it brought to vast numbers of people. Yet, at the same time, in all ofthem, the past quarter ofa century has exacted a heavy cultural and psychological toll. In the case of Salonika, perhaps the most far-reaching, if also the most intangible, of these costs has been the loss of its inhabitants' historical memory. The demolition of the very physical structures of the city's older urban landscape stands at once as an expression and a cause of this loss. Today, the past is remembered much less well in Salonika than one might imagine. While it is true that the construction of an attractive archaeological museum to house the spectacular finds of Pella and Vergina has made the city's classical heritage easily accessible, it is no small irony that a much more recent chapter in Salonika's history has been almost entirely obliterated from the collective consciousness. Spanning more than four centuries, from 1492 to its dramatic and painful conclusion in 1943, this chapter was written, above all, by Salonika's Jews. Of course, students of Jewish history have known all along of this city's Jewish community. Not a year goes by without the publication of at least one learned article on some aspect of Salonikan Jewish history. On the whole, this is the fare of specialists. The wider knowledge that large numbers of Jews lived for a long time in that part of the world, that they made substantial contributions to Jewish learning and to the society in whose midst they prospered, that from the end of the fifteenth to the middle of the twentieth centuries Salonika was the Jewish city par excellence...

The influence of cypermethrin and oxydemeton‐methyl treatment on Lygus damage in young Scots pine seedlings

SummaryLaboratory experiments were carried out to evaluate the efficiency of two insecticides, cypermethrin and oxydemeton‐methyl, in controlling the nymphs and adults of Lygus bugs and the resulting damage caused by these bugs to small pine seedlings. Both insecticides significantly increased the mortality of bugs on the seedlings compared with bug mortality on untreated controls. Mortality of bugs was higher in the oxydemeton‐methyl treatment than in the cypermethrin treatment. The occurrence of seedlings with multiple leaders and the number of leader shoots per seedling were significantly decreased in insecticide‐treated seedlings. Mean number of leader shoots was significantly higher in seedlings treated with oxydemeton‐methyl than in seedlings treated with cypermethrin after a 24‐h exposure to nymphal instars of Lygus. The mortality of the pine seedlings was very low but significantly decreased in insecticidal treatments. Factors affecting the effects of different insecticides on bug mortality and their efficiency in controlling the multiple‐leadering phenomenon are discussed.

Needle and root responses of small Pinus sylvestris seedlings exposed to sulphur dioxide and simulated acid rain

Six‐week‐old Pinus sylvestris seedlings were exposed separately and simultaneously to sulphur dioxide and simulated sulphuric acid irrigation applied through the growth medium. At the end of experiments the growth of seedlings and the sulphur content of the needles were measured and the structural changes in the primary needles and growing long root tips at the light and electron microscope level were observed. Seedlings exposed to sulphur dioxide showed an increase in needle sulphur content without visible alterations or changes in the growth of seedlings. In needle mesophyll cell chloroplasts thylakoid swelling and decrease in size of starch grains were observed. Combined sulphur dioxide and simulated sulphuric acid irrigation caused greater ultrastructural alterations in needles than sulphur dioxide alone. Acid irrigation alone did not have any effect on the needles, but it caused injuries in the root cortical cell ultrastructure, whereas sulphur dioxide alone did not cause any observable structural ef...

Ecological aspects of the foraging behaviour of Crested TitsParus cristatus

Studies were made in the pine forests of the Spey Valley to discover the degree to which the feeding habits of the Crested Tit involved it in, or freed it from, competition with tits of wider distribution or other species of similar hunting methods. When they were feeding in trees or bushes, more than 80% of Crested Tit foraging was in Scots Pines, where the hunting was shared with Coal Tits and Goldcrests and, to some extent, with Blue Tits. The Great and Long-tailed Tits in the area spent most of their time in broad-leaved trees and did not notably come into competition with the pine-foraging species. At all seasons of the year Crested Tits were more likely to be found in the more massive parts of the trees than were their possible competitors: in the winter months they resorted much more to smaller pines than did the other members of the guild and they were more often recorded foraging on the ground.

Demand and Value of Firewood Permits as Determined by the Travel Cost Model

Abstract The travel cost method is used to determine the value of trips to collect weekend firewood near the Denver-Boulder metropolitan area. The analysis indicated an average willingness to pay of $21.42 per cord for small live lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) stumpage. This value, including a $10.00 per cord permit fee, is directly comparable to values commonly assigned to other goods and services, such as sawlogs or recreation, for resource allocation. In particular, values obtained through the residual value timber appraisal system are analogous to this figure. West. J. Appl. For. 2(2):48-50, April 1987.

Prescribed fire effects on mixed conifer forest structure at Crater Lake, Oregon

Prescribed fire was applied to a mixed conifer forest in southern Oregon, part of which was selectively logged in the 1930's. Structural effects were measured over a 4-year postfire period. Initial tree mortality was concentrated in small diameter and height classes of Abiesconcolor (Gord. and Glend) Lindl., Pinuslambertiana Dougl., and Pinusponderosa Dougl. Most mortality in all three species after the 1st year was associated with bark beetles. Mortality after 1 year for Abiesconcolor remained primarily in smaller tree classes, while both small and large pines were killed. Implications for restoring natural conditions in these ecosystems include recognizing structural as well as process goals, while reintroducing fire, and recognizing the significance of available prescription variables in the prediction of fire effects.

Toxicity of Orthene 75S to Pandora Moth, 1982

Abstract Second stage pandora moths were collected near the north rim of the Grand Canyon in October 1982 and shipped on ponderosa pine foliage to Berkeley, Calif. Small ponderosa pine branches were clipped to fit into a 200-ml plastic specimen containers. The stem was inserted into a hole in the bottom of an inverted container, and 10 larvae were placed on the needles 24 h before spray application. Immediately before spray, a 15-cm diameter filter paper with a single radial slit was positioned around the stem and beneath the needles to catch any larvae falling during treatment. Spray was applied to individual branches at a volume equivalent of 9.35 liters/ha with a laboratory spray chamber during an exposure period of 60 sec. Orthene 75S was formulated in distilled water on the basis of weight per unit volume of the active ingredient. Eight concentrations were serially diluted from a concentrated source for each of three replications of the experiment. Two branches were sprayed with each concentration within a replication. A control group sprayed with water only was included with each replication. After treatment, the filter paper was removed, any fallen insects placed back on the branch, and the stem was clipped free of the treatment container. The branch and insects were placed within a clean specimen container, and the container was closed with a paper lid. Mortality was tallied after 7 days.