Small Island States Research Articles

Waiting for Godot? The Case for Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation in Small Island States

Waiting for Godot? The Case for Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation in Small Island States

Reducing the impacts of tourism seasonality in the small island state of Cyprus

PurposeThis concluding article aims to summarize the key points and outcomes from the theme issue question: How could the Republic of Cyprus reduce the impact of seasonal tourism on long-term sustainable development? Which is a follow-up issue to the Cyprus sustainability theme issue published in Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes volume 13 number 6 2021.Design/methodology/approachThe paper summarizes the findings of the theme issue in relation to how stakeholders in the Republic of Cyprus can reduce the impact of severe tourism seasonality on long-term sustainable tourism development.FindingsThe findings of the articles in this theme issue explore the depth of the seasonality problem and its impact on the long-term sustainability of the small island state of Cyprus. Further, the articles in this collection explore potential remedies and ways to mitigate seasonality with the help of alternative, special interest tourism activities, improved air connectivity, established cluster-based activities, and improved accessibility to the island.Originality/valueThe articles in this issue provide perspectives from academics, practitioners, industry professionals, and policymakers on what steps could be taken to tackle increasing tourism seasonality that has profound effects on economic, social, and environmental sustainability in the island of Cyprus.

An Advisory Opinion on Climate Change Obligations Under International Law: A Realistic Prospect?

On 31 October 2021, an agreement was signed between Antigua and Barbuda and Tuvalu that established a commission with the power to request an advisory opinion from the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS). Since ITLOS’s advisory jurisdiction has been tested in only one case, I explain and evaluate the procedural obstacles facing this commission, as well as the potential questions it might submit to ITLOS. The analysis draws upon the jurisprudence of the International Court of Justice to indicate how ITLOS could articulate and apply its jurisdiction in an advisory case. I conclude that although there appear to be few insurmountable obstacles to securing ITLOS’s jurisdiction, care must be taken by the Commission of Small Island States on Climate Change and International Law to ensure that the questions presented to ITLOS are carefully drafted so that ITLOS has no concerns over the judicial propriety of giving an advisory opinion.

Capitalizing on inequalities to build a sound partnership: The story of SISSTEM, an international collaboration between a continental and a small island state university

TThe literature on north-south inter-university collaborations emphasizes on the need for equality amongst partners when aiming to develop successful and sustainable partnerships. However, universities in the north usually differ largely from their counterparts in the south in terms of amongst others access to resources and scale and are therefore often inherently unequal. This is especially true when a large-scale renowned university in Europe, like KU Leuven, establishes a partnership with a young small-scale university located on a small island state, like the University of Aruba, in establishing a new education and research institute in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics). In this paper, we investigate how an equal and sustainable partnership between these institutes is established, not despite these inequalities but precisely by recognizing and capitalizing on their inequalities. Based on an explorative case study analysis using semi-structured interviews, we aim to contribute to the literature by reporting on this continental-small island state inter-university partnership and by providing insight into the broader critical drivers and challenges of the partnership.

Climate negotiations: time to implement planetary health promises

Climate negotiations: time to implement planetary health promises

Unoccupied Aerial Systems: A Review of Regulatory and Legislative Frameworks in the Caribbean

Unoccupied aerial systems (UAS) have become pervasive for many small-scale and large-scale aerial operations around the world. Their implementation in small island states like those of the Caribbean is particularly useful because they are relatively cheap and versatile. Despite being used for more than a decade in this part of the world, however, many territories in this tropical region still do not have adequate regulatory and/or legislative frameworks to support UAS operations. UAS applications are varied in the Caribbean, ranging from recreational use and coral reef monitoring to public utilities and national security support. In this paper, we present the first collective assessment of existing UAS regulatory and legislative frameworks in the Caribbean region. Data on four factors that are critical to UAS operations was collected and analyzed for the fifteen full-member Caribbean Community (CARICOM) countries. Across the duration of this study, some of the countries assessed had no existing frameworks in place, while one had completely banned UAS operations within its jurisdiction. Others, including Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, and Jamaica, had comprehensive frameworks that were continuously being updated. The outcome of a more in-depth analysis revealed that the UAS legislative framework for Guyana appeared to be the most robust amongst all CARICOM territories. Finally, some of the challenges of proper UAS regulation observed in the region are presented.

Climate change versus livelihoods, heritage and ecosystems in small Island states of the Pacific: a case study on Tuvalu

Climate change versus livelihoods, heritage and ecosystems in small Island states of the Pacific: a case study on Tuvalu

Profitability Determinants of the Insurance Sector in Small Pacific Island States: A Study of Fiji’s Insurance Companies

We examine the determinants of profitability of insurance companies in Fiji as a reference country. In Fiji, insurance companies and the services have grown over the years. The study uses a financial evaluation approach. Profitability is measured by the return on assets and the return on equity. Using the two measures and the data published in the key disclosure statements as a mandatory requirement by the Reserve Bank of Fiji, we develop regression models. The fixed-effects regression model and a balanced panel are considered for the analysis. The sample comprises eight insurance companies’ financial data over the period 2010-2015. First, a base model is estimated, followed by additional models which include interaction effects as part of the sensitivity analysis and further insights. The general outcome of the estimation is that premium income, underwriting expenses, administrative expenses, and volume of capital are positively associated with profitability, whereas leverage measured by total liability over equity, and contingent liability are negatively associated with profitability. Inclusion of interaction effects provides results consistent with the base model. The study is a first attempt to analyse Fiji’s insurance sectors and provides useful information in terms of financial management of the sector. The findings can assist the insurance sector and the policy makers to formulate strategies for revenue and cost management.

Small Islands in International Relations: Bermuda’s Sports Paradiplomacy

The concept of smallness is not only found in Island Studies but also in International Relations, a study that discusses the interaction of political units in the international world. Both Island Studies and International Relations see smallness as a characteristic that can influence the behavior of small island states. This paper tries to bring together the two studies by discussing the case of Bermuda, an island with a semi-autonomous status which has a level of sovereignty close to that of sovereign states. The authors argue that smallness does not always translate into a completely negative condition. Some small states actually depart from their weak position in the international world to then develop their soft power, or the ability to attract the attention of other international actors in a non-coercive manner. In the case of Bermuda, its limited bargaining position in the international world actually makes it more focused on developing sports as its leading sector. Through the sports sector, Bermuda develops its brand to furtherly engage with other international actors and gains economic benefits from it.

Climate change and the fate of small islands: The case of Mauritius

Small island states are the most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, despite not contributing much to global greenhouse gas emissions. Crafting effective science-based adaptive strategies to conserve and sustain natural resources in the face of the changing climate has important socio-economic, political, and ecological dimensions. The analysis in the current paper reveals that the island of Mauritius has been warming at a rate of 0.0216 °C/year over the period 1971–2020, with an increase in precipitation averaging 2.29 mm/year over the 1981–2020 period. The changing climate over time has had severe repercussions on the native ecosystems of the island and is threatening the long-term freshwater supply system. Science-based policy measures proposed revolve around the expansion and re-design of protected areas to be strategically located in climate-resilient regions that seek to offer refuge to native fauna and flora. To increase the resilience on freshwater supply on the island, measures proposed include the introduction of a freshwater coordination-based system that operates on water stress level, in addition to increasing the network of freshwater catchment areas in regions where precipitation is increasing over time. The insights in this paper are expected to be valuable for other small islands in adapting to climate change.

Guardians of the Constitution: Upholding Judicial Independence During Samoa’s Constitutional Crisis

ABSTRACT Samoa’s 2021 constitutional crisis saw unprecedented attacks on the nation’s judiciary and the rule of law. The Human Rights Protection Party (HRPP) refused to concede defeat after a tightly contested general election on 9 April 2021. The transfer of power to the incoming Faʻatuatua i le Atua Samoa ua Tasi (FAST) government was stymied by determined efforts such as the attempted exploitation of the women’s parliamentary quota, attempts to justify the calling of fresh elections and the locking of the parliamentary chamber to prevent parliament’s first meeting. This article examines how the constitutionality and lawfulness of these actions was repeatedly challenged in Samoa’s courts in a highly charged political atmosphere that persistently ignored court rulings. It outlines how Samoa’s judiciary came under serious and repeated threat by constitutional actors, in particular the head of state, the outgoing government, and the attorney general. The article finds that despite these critical challenges, the rulings of the courts ultimately resolved the four-month impasse through decisions on an unprecedented number of complex and novel constitutional issues. The courts’ role in the crisis demonstrates the importance of a sound and independent judiciary to uphold the rule of law, particularly in small island states when the foundations and functioning of a modern constitutional democracy are attacked.

Costs and trade-offs associated with renewable energy policies for Small Island Developing States: Case study for Jamaica

Due to their unique economic and geographic features, Small Island Developing States may find that energy policy recommendations in the existing literature (i) have only limited applicability to their specific context or (ii) are primarily descriptive. Furthermore, inconsistencies in energy policy targets in Small Island Developing States call into question the analytical basis for these targets. To fill these gaps, this paper uses an empirical, dynamic optimization model to assess the costs and trade-offs associated with a menu of renewable energy policies while accounting for the economic and geographic idiosyncrasies of small island states. Using the island of Jamaica as a demonstration, four policies are examined. Findings indicate that a carbon tax results in the lowest additional cost to society if the government's primary objective is reducing carbon emissions. If, however, the government's priority is energy independence, then a renewable portfolio standard is more effective.

The benefits and challenges of taxing sugar in a small island state: an interrupted time series analysis

BackgroundBeverage and food taxes have become a popular ‘best buy’ public health intervention in the global battle to tackle noncommunicable diseases. Though many countries have introduced taxes, mainly targeting products containing sugar, there is great heterogeneity in tax design. For taxes levied as import tariffs, there is limited evidence of effectiveness in changing the price and sale of taxed products, while the evidence base is stronger for excise taxes levied as a fixed amount per quantity of product. This paper examines the effect of the Bermuda Discretionary Foods Tax, which was based on import tariff changes, on retail prices and sales of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs), and on selected fruits and vegetables that benefited from a tariff reduction.MethodsWe used weekly electronic point-of-sale data from a major food retailer in Bermuda. We assessed historical weekly sales and price data using an interrupted time series design on 2,703 unique products between the dates of January 2018 through January 2020, covering 103 weeks.ResultsBy January 2020, the average price per ounce of SSBs increased by 26.0%, while the price of untaxed beverages (including waters and non-added sugar drinks) remained constant. The increasing price of SSBs was the sole observable structural driver of SSB market share, responsible for a decrease in the market share by nearly eight percentage points by the end of the study period. The subsidy on fruits and vegetables was ineffective in changing prices and sales, due to the relatively small 5% import tax decrease.ConclusionsThe tax was largely passed through to consumers. However, several factors mitigated the impact of the tax on the prices paid for SSBs by consumers, including the specific design of the tax, price promotions and consumer responses. The experience of Bermuda provides important lessons for the planning of similar taxes in the future.

An Assessment of the Impact of COVID-19 on the Agri-Food System in Caribbean Small Island Developing States

The COVID-19 pandemic impacts have arguable been more pronounced in the developing world, such as the Small Island States (SIDS) of the Caribbean, where a plethora of geophysical and socio-political factors have led to increased vulnerability, particularly in fragile sectors such as agriculture. The pandemic added another layer of complexity to the unstable agri-food systems of SIDS in the Caribbean. Measures to contain the unfolding crisis have tremendously disrupted food systems by threatening the production, distribution, and marketing of commodities which exposed the frailty of the region's food security. Caribbean SIDS are highly dependent on food imports and relies on international markets to secure food. Many are also dependent on agricultural exports and have a large portion of their population involved in agriculture making them particularly vulnerable to the rigors of the pandemic. Export restrictions on foodstuff and prohibitions due to lockdowns and border closures further exacerbated these challenges. Additionally, food and nutrition security in the region is also subjected to the effects of climate change and climate-related disasters. Dealing with the impacts of co-occurring disasters is, therefore, an ever-present threat. This study examines the impact of COVID-19 on the agri-food supply in the Caribbean. It also identified measures and initiatives adopted to cope with these disruptive consequences. The study involves the use of internet-based surveys and focus group discussions and internet-based surveys with stakeholders and online searches for related literature. A total of 96 farmers, 60 food distributors, 84 food service operators, and 237 consumers from the region participated in the online survey and 4 focus group discussions between January and November 2021. The results confirmed that the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic were evident along the entire agri-food supply chain and numerous challenges and shocks were identified across all participating groups and countries. Some challenges and shocks such as loss of income and related challenges including lower sales and loss of markets affected all groups in the study but to varying degrees and based on socio-demographic factors. In general people of lower income status and smaller businesses were more susceptible to the negative impacts of the pandemic.

Developing the 2020-2030 mental health strategy for Malta: Addressing the needs of a small island state undergoing rapid socioeconomic transition

Malta has embarked on a renewed national endeavour to reform the mental health sector, prioritising mental health in the context of the national health strategy post 2020. Past attempts at reforming this sector were stifled due to insufficient and unsustained political commitment, leaving it direly under-resourced. An interplay of factors over recent years has rekindled political and public interest in mental health. These include: the establishment of a mental health commissioner; indictment from a National Audit Office report; and coordinated public pressure from local media, non-governmental organisations and professionals. Government responded by publishing a mental health strategy to address both long-standing and new challenges arising from rapid socioeconomic changes which have put further strain on an already overstretched system, demanding urgent action. The concept of strengthening resilience is put forward as a central tenet in the strategy and a combination of initiatives were proposed for the prevention of mental illness, investment in physical and human resources and the creation of a new service framework. Successful implementation of this strategy is dependent on continued political commitment, visible leadership, ongoing investment commitment, and meaningful engagement by key stakeholders. Ongoing stakeholder advocacy appears to be crucial to ensure that mental health continues to be considered as a national priority.

Agreement for the Establishment of the Commission of Small Island States on Climate Change and International Law

On October 31, 2021, the leaders of the Government of Antigua and Barbuda and the Government of Tuvalu signed the “Agreement for the Establishment of the Commission of Small Island States on Climate Change and International Law” (the Agreement). As noted in the title itself, the Agreement creates a Commission of “small island states” tasked with promoting international law principles that hold states responsible for failing to protect the marine environment by contributing to climate change. Among the responsibilities outlined in the Agreement, the Commission would have the power to seek advisory opinions from the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS, or the Tribunal) as part of its efforts to pursue its mandate.

Surviving in a small island state prison. Analysing prison officer support and assistance as narrated by people in prison

This paper sheds light on male Maltese people in prison and their perception of help and support when incarcerated. Through thematic analysis, the viewpoints, thoughts, and feelings of 39 males incarcerated at Corradino Correctional Facility (CCF), Malta's only prison, were explored in relation to programmes aimed to help them in their desistance journey. Many individuals spoke to the lack of support they felt within this prison. Themes emerging from this paper suggest that relationships between incarcerated people and staff are not supportive of any rehabilitative ideal. Participants speak of the lack of induction, information, and support, and of being mocked when requesting information or assistance. They state that support is conditional on who they knew, including direct references to corruption.

Where land meets sea: Islands, erosion and the thing-power of hard coastal protection structures

In the last few decades, hard coastal protection structures, such as seawalls and groynes, have become increasingly commonplace around the world. Conventionally, the effects of such structures have been considered within a modernist framework that evaluates the degree of human control over the land–sea interface. However, this dominant viewpoint overlooks the central role that sea defences play in the ongoing production of coastal communities, particularly in small island states. This paper responds to these issues by revealing how coastal protection structures, as contingently performed material configurations, are devised and come into being and the social relations that these structures create and influence. Drawing on empirical research undertaken on a small island in the Maldives over a period of 6 years, the paper demonstrates not only the challenges that coastal communities face in attempting to exert control over the unruly sea but also the thing-power of the protection measures themselves that are made and unmade as part of this process. These findings suggest the need for sensitivity towards the social roles and effects of hard coastal protection structures when devising approaches and policies that might see the decommissioning of such structures in favour of softer, ‘nature-based’ responses to the vitality of the non-human world. As structures with their own unique material complexities, hard defence measures are deeply involved in the production of multinatural island futures.

An Integrated GIS Method – The Influence of Human Activities on Shoreline Change in Western Indian Small Island States: A Two Centuries Analysis of Urban West Unguja - Zanzibar Shoreline

Purpose: Urban areas have a high impact on shoreline changes that are more influenced by human activities rather than natural factors, together with hard structural mitigation and management, which are more practiced compared to other areas. This paper describes shoreline changes of small islands specifically; the shoreline of Urban West of Unguja Island in Zanzibar United Republic of Tanzania. This island has been changed for 174 years in different stages due to human activities including; reclamation of Darajani creek, port expansion at Malindi, Mtoni beach nourishment, sewer and stormwater channeling at Kilimani, construction of walls, groins, jetties, etc. 
 Methodology: The study uses an integrated method to analyze and detect changes using a sketch plan survey map of 1846 and 1892, a topographic map of 1907 and 1987, an aerial photo of 2004, Landsat images, and google images of 2019 and 2020. These maps were carefully georeferenced with latitude and longitudes, digitized using ArcGIS and demarcated along the study area supported with ground truth observation to analyze the coastal shoreline changes.
 Findings: The results show that the area experiences more accretion rather than retreat, integrated analysis and projections of the overall accretion and retreat for 174 years is 1,527,693.85 m2 (1.53 km2) and -936,135.48 m2 ( -0.94 km) receptively. The average accretion of land from 1846 to 2020 is 8,779.85m2/yr. (0.0088 km2/yr.) and retreat is -5,380.09m2/yr. (-0.0054 km2/yr.). A major accretion was observed and detected during the early 1900s to late 1987 which were major land transformation while other minor development activities were between 2010 to 2020. Sea walls, groins, beach nourishment, mangroves, barrier islands, and islets are major management practices of the shoreline which show a positive impact.
 Recommendations: The study finds it more appropriate to use multi datasets as an integrated method to analyze long-term coastal shoreline changes especially when there is limited data.

Maritime Connections between New Zealand and Sri Lanka: Connected by Empire, Separated by Distance

Smaller states do not receive the same attention as larger powers when discussing maritime security. Island-states are worthy of attention because of their sizeable, large maritime zones. New Zealand and Sri Lanka are such islands with significant maritime security interests and responsibilities, located adjacent to larger powers. They warrant an examination even though their geographical locations generate different maritime security dynamics and are vastly different in their land mass. Unfortunately, there is a dearth of literature pertaining to the bilateral relations. This highlights that there has been minimal emphasis on New Zealand-Sri Lanka bilateral relations even from an academic perspective. Therefore, we examine why New Zealand and Sri Lanka, which were intricately connected through the British Empire did not continue to maintain ties with one another, regardless of similarities between the two states. While distance and lack of awareness of the similarities have resulted in distanced relations, we argue that there is much to learn about smaller island-states from comparing our respective maritime interests. Keywords: British Empire, Island-state, Maritime Security, Maritime Connections, New Zealand, Sri Lanka