Small Indian Mongoose Research Articles

Is the Martinique ground snake Erythrolamprus cursor extinct?

AbstractThe Caribbean Islands are a biodiversity hotspot where anthropogenic disturbances have had a significant impact, causing population declines and extinction of endemic species. The ground snake Erythrolamprus cursor is a dipsadid endemic to Martinique; it is categorized as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List and is known only from museum specimens. The snake was common on Martinique during the 18th and 19th centuries but there have been no reliable sightings since 1968, suggesting it may have gone extinct, probably as a result of the introduction of the small Indian mongoose Herpestes javanicus auropunctatus. However, the islet known as Diamond Rock, south-west of Martinique, is mongoose-free and the last reported sighting of E. cursor there was in 1968. The islet was last occupied during the Napoleonic Empire (the early 19th century), is now completely protected, and is difficult to access (it spans 5.8 ha, with a maximum elevation of 175 m). We conducted the first extensive survey of the islet, over 10 days, to clarifty the status of E. cursor. Our study revealed that unique conditions exist on Diamond Rock (i.e. aridity and a distinct potential prey community) and that E. cursor would have had to modify its ecology to persist on the islet. Although the rugged terrain of Diamond Rock makes it difficult to explore, it is probable that E. cursor is now extinct.

Sexual dimorphism and condition dependence in the anal pad of the small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus)

Secondary sexual traits tend to be sexually dimorphic, and theory predicts that such traits should also be condition-dependent in a sex-specific manner. We investigate these phenomena in a field study of the small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus (Hodgson, 1836); formerly Herpestes javanicus (É. Geoffroy Saint-Hillaire, 1818)), in the first attempt at understanding secondary sexual traits and sexual selection in this species. Small Indian mongooses are solitary and nonterritorial, and they likely depend on chemical (scent) rather than visual or acoustic signals for communication. Additionally, they possess a fleshy projection around their anus, the anal pad, thought to aid in scent-marking. Our results revealed strong male-biased sexual dimorphism in mass, skull and body lengths, canine diameters, and anal pad area. After controlling for the influence of body length, males were 31% heavier and possessed anal pads that were 68% larger than females’. Additionally, anal pad size was positively related to body size in males but not in females and was condition-dependent in males but not in females. Taken together, our findings provide indirect evidence that the anal pad might have evolved, at least in part, via sexual selection.

Population constraints on the Grenada Dove Leptotila wellsi: preliminary findings and proposals from south-west Grenada

SummaryThe Critically Endangered Grenada Dove Leptotila wellsi has a very small total population size (< 190 individuals) and faces multiple threats. Over eight weeks in 2012 at the Mount Hartman Estate, we investigated the dove’s habitat selection, established a mongoose index of occupancy and recorded dove use of water sources to help determine key research and conservation needs. Of 12 habitat variables measured, greater levels of canopy cover were the best predictor of dove presence. Tracking tunnels indicated that introduced small Indian mongooses Herpestes auropunctatus, widely known for negatively impacting Caribbean bird populations, have a high level of occupancy in dove habitat, providing baseline mongoose data. Trail cameras revealed that Grenada Doves make good use of water from man-made wells and mongooses scent-mark tunnels. We urge fuller habitat selection studies and water-provision experiments to validate this evidence; strong and immediate control of mongooses and other potential predators, particularly at the nest; and a census backed by a banding programme to establish a monitoring baseline to guide conservation actions.

Effect of travel distance, home range, and bait on the management of small Indian mongooses, Herpestes auropunctatus

Selection of preferred baits to attract mongooses to traps and other control devices is paramount in the effective management and control of this invasive predatory mammal. We examined the attractiveness of selected food items as baits to free-ranging mongooses in field trials at two different habitats on the island of Hawaii. We utilized radio telemetry to calculate mongoose home range and population density estimates. We implanted microchips to remotely identify and record visitations by mongooses to the candidate baits and investigated bait visitation rates, bait attraction distances, and bait discovery times. Mongooses in this study foraged over a wide area and readily investigated the various novel food baits, with fish, beef and egg-baited stations eliciting higher first and revisits over multiple days. We radio collared 34 mongooses. Overall mean home range estimates were 21.9 and 28.8 ha and did not differ between the two study sites (F = 2.12, p = 0.156), although overall male mongooses had larger home ranges than females (F = 22.92, df = 1, p < 0.0001). Extensive overlapping home ranges were recorded among individual mongooses, regardless of gender. Male mongooses were attracted from a greater distance to selected baits as compared to females (F = 15.80, df = 1, p = 0.0004) although females visited more bait stations than males at each site (F = 11.26, df = 1, p = 0.002 and F = 6.90, df = 1, p = 0.017). Baits were usually discovered within 24–30 h of exposure. Based on time to first bait discovery, no differences were found among percent of food stations visited among bait types at either site (F = 0.93, df = 4, p = 0.463 and F = 0.40, df = 3, p = 0.756). The results of this study provide insights on mongoose foraging ecology in Hawaii and the attractiveness of food baits used in developing effective control strategies in detecting and trapping mongooses in newly established areas as well as reducing or eradicating populations in native species habitat impacted by mongooses.

Third eyelid in the small Indian mongoose (Herpestes javanicus): a morphological and histological study.

The Indian mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) is native to parts of Asia, Iran. The purpose of this study was to describe the gross anatomy of the cartilage and histology of the superficial gland of the third eyelid of two adult mongooses. The animals, in terminal stages of disease and near death due to aging or unknown reasons, were referred from Park Zoo (Shiraz, Iran) to our center. By using a modified maceration technique, the morphological characteristics of the cartilage were examined. For histological examinations of the superficial gland of the third eyelid, the samples were stained with haematoxylin and eosin. Also, to detect the elastic fibers in the cartilage sections were stained with orcein and Weigert's resorcin-fuchsin. The cartilage consisted of an ovoid appendix and a mild reverse sigmoid crossbar. Elastic fibers were scattered throughout the cartilage but were more concentrated in the center. The superficial gland of the third eyelid was compound tubuloacinar with serous acini.

Influence of land use and climate on Salmonella carrier status in the small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) in Grenada, West Indies.

Invasive mammals can be important reservoirs for human pathogens. A recent study showed that 12% of mongooses carried Salmonella spp. in their large intestines. We investigated whether anthropogenic, environmental and climatic variables predicted Salmonella status in mongooses (Herpestes auropunctatus) in Grenada. Using multivariate logistic regression and contingency table analysis, we found that increased human density, decreased distance from roads, and low monthly precipitation were associated with increased probability of Salmonella carriage. Areas with higher human density likely support a higher abundance of mongooses because of greater food availability. These areas also are a likely source for infection to mongooses due to high densities of livestock and rodents shedding Salmonella. The higher probability of Salmonella carriage in mongooses during drier months and closer to roadsides is likely due to water drainage patterns and limited water availability. Although the overall prevalence of Salmonella in mongooses was moderate, the strong patterns of ecologic correlates, combined with the high density of mongooses throughout Grenada suggest that the small Indian mongoose could be a useful sentinel for Salmonella surveillance. Its affinity for human-associated habitats suggests that the small Indian mongoose is also a risk factor in the maintenance and possible spread of Salmonella species to humans and livestock in Grenada.

Distribution of Small Indian Mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) in the Eastern Herzegovina – spreading inside mainland

Spreading of small Indian mongoose ( Herpestes auropunctatus ) along Adriatic coast is well described in recent literature. However, data about its presence and spreading in mainland of Bosnia and Herzegovina are scarce. In this paper new records about distribution of small Indian mongoose in the region of Eastern Herzegovina are presented. This region is characteristic as the species was introduced few decades ago. These records confirm extension of this species’ range towards south-east along Trebisnjica river. Excluding valley of Neretva river were species was already recorded recently small Indian mongose is present in whole area of Popovo polje. Total distribution area of the small Indian mongoose in Bosnia and Herzegovina is 262.5 km 2 . So far there are no data about its presence in western from Neretva river. Having in mind that this is an invasive species, establishment of population monitoring and assessment of the impact which small Indian mongoose has on local fauna must be set as biodiversity conservation priorities in the future.

Probable achievement of eradication of the small Indian mongoose Herpestes auropunctatus and survival state of native animals in Kagoshima prefecture mainland, Japan

Probable achievement of eradication of the small Indian mongoose <i>Herpestes auropunctatus</i> and survival state of native animals in Kagoshima prefecture mainland, Japan

Prevalence of Salmonella spp. and thermophilic Campylobacter spp. in the small Asian mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) in Barbados, West Indies.

From April to July 2005, rectal swabs were collected from 48 free-ranging small Asian mongooses (Herpestes javanicus) on the east and south coasts of Barbados and analyzed for Salmonella and Campylobacter spp. Salmonella was recovered in 21.12% (7/33) of mongooses at the east-coast site and 26.67% (4/15) at the south-coast site. Four serotypes were isolated: Salmonella enterica serovar Rubislaw, Kentucky, Javiana, and Panama. One east-coast sample of 11 tested for Campylobacter was positive (9.09%). These results indicate that mongooses in Barbados are carriers and shedders of Salmonella and Campylobacter spp. and are a potential wildlife reservoir for these enteropathogens.

Convergence analysis of a finite element skull model of Herpestes javanicus (Carnivora, Mammalia): implications for robust comparative inferences of biomechanical function.

Predictions of skull biomechanical capability based on virtual models constitute a valuable data source for testing hypotheses about craniodental form and feeding behavior. Such comparative analyses also inform dietary reconstruction in extinct species. 3D modeling using Finite Element (FE) methods is a common technique applied to the comparative analysis of craniodental function in extinct and extant vertebrates. However, taxonomically diverse skull models in the literature often are not directly comparable to each other, in part because of distinctions in how boundary conditions are defined, but also because of substantial differences in the number of FEs composing the models. In this study, we test whether a conventional convergence test is adequate in identifying the minimum number of FEs needed to achieve internally stable results for a single species. We constructed a series of skull models of Herpestes javanicus, and simulated unilateral biting across the dentition; the models differed in the number of FEs, degrees of freedom at the joint and bite point constraints, and type of tetrahedral FEs used. We found that convergence patterns differed across constraint types, FE quantities, and bite position simulated. Four-noded tetrahedral (tet-4) FE models with relaxed constraints produced the most stable measurements compared to over-constrained tet-4 models and to relaxed tet-10 models. In absence of an optimal FE quantity from convergence testing, we propose a broadly applicable sub-sampling protocol, whereby average measurement values across multiple models per specimen are used for among-species comparisons. A regime of sampling three low FE quantity models produced the closest estimates of mean measurement values relative to larger model sets, being within the 95% bootstrap estimated confidence intervals. Future studies should focus on identifying sources of variation associated with other FE modeling protocols, so that they can be accounted for before biomechanical attributes from these simulations are used to infer form-function linkage.

The phylogeography of rabies in Grenada, West Indies, and implications for control.

In Grenada, West Indies, rabies is endemic, and is thought to be maintained in a wildlife host, the small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) with occasional spillover into other hosts. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to improve understanding of rabies epidemiology in Grenada and to inform rabies control policy. Mongooses were trapped island-wide between April 2011 and March 2013 and examined for the presence of Rabies virus (RABV) antigen using the direct fluorescent antibody test (dFAT) and PCR, and for serum neutralizing antibodies (SNA) using the fluorescent antibody virus neutralization test (FAVN). An additional cohort of brain samples from clinical rabies suspects submitted between April 2011 and March 2014 were also investigated for the presence of virus. Two of the 171 (1.7%) live-trapped mongooses were RABV positive by FAT and PCR, and 20 (11.7%) had SNAs. Rabies was diagnosed in 31 of the submitted animals with suspicious clinical signs: 16 mongooses, 12 dogs, 2 cats and 1 goat. Our investigation has revealed that rabies infection spread from the northeast to the southwest of Grenada within the study period. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the viruses from Grenada formed a monophyletic clade within the cosmopolitan lineage with a common ancestor predicted to have occurred recently (6–23 years ago), and are distinct from those found in Cuba and Puerto Rico, where mongoose rabies is also endemic. These data suggest that it is likely that this specific strain of RABV was imported from European regions rather than the Americas. These data contribute essential information for any potential rabies control program in Grenada and demonstrate the importance of a sound evidence base for planning interventions.

Establishment of a primary hepatocyte culture from the small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) and distribution of mercury in liver tissue.

The present study established a primary hepatocyte culture for the small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus). To determine the suitable medium for growing the primary hepatic cells of this species, we compared the condition of cells cultured in three media that are frequently used for mammalian cell culture: Dulbecco's Modified Eagle's Medium, RPMI-1640, and William's E. Of these, William's E medium was best suited for culturing the hepatic cells of this species. Using periodic acid-Schiff staining and ultrastructural observations, we demonstrated the cells collected from mongoose livers were hepatocytes. To evaluate the distribution of mercury (Hg) in the liver tissue, we carried out autometallography staining. Most of the Hg compounds were found in the central region of hepatic lobules. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum, which plays a role inxenobiotic metabolism, lipid/cholesterol metabolism, and the digestion and detoxification of lipophilic substances is grown in this area. This suggested that Hg colocalized with smooth endoplasmic reticulum. The results of the present study could be useful to identify the detoxification systems of wildlife with high Hg content in the body, and to evaluate the susceptibility of wildlife to Hg toxicity.

Molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of the causative agent of hemoplasma infection in small Indian Mongoose (Herpestes Javanicus).

Hemoplasmas are the trivial name for a group of erythrocyte-parasitizing bacteria of the genus Mycoplasma. This study is the first report of hemoplasma infection in Small Indian Mongoose (Herpestes Javanicus) based on molecular analysis of 16S rDNA. Whole blood samples were collected by sterile methods, from 14 live captured mongooses, in the south of Iran. Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis (CMt)-like hemoplasma was detected in blood samples from one animal tested. BLAST search and phylogenetic analysis of partial 16S rDNA sequence (933bp) of the hemoplasma from Small Indian mongoose (KJ530704) revealed only 96-97% identity to the previously described CMt followed by 95% and 91% similarity with Mycoplasma coccoides and Mycoplasma haemomuris, respectively. Accordingly, the Iranian mongoose CMt isolate showed a high intra-specific genetic variation compared to all previously reported CMt strains in GenBank. Further molecular studies using multiple phylogenetic markers are required to characterize the exact species of Mongoose-derived hemoplasma.

Prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility of Salmonella spp. in small Indian mongooses (Herpestes auropunctatus) in Grenada, West Indies.

Intestinal samples from 156 small Indian mongooses (Herpestes auropunctatus) collected island-wide in Grenada from April 2011 to March 2013 were examined for the presence of Salmonella enterica spp. Nineteen (12%) mongooses were culture-positive for S. enterica spp. of which five serotypes were identified. Salmonella javiana and S. Montevideo were the most commonly isolated serotypes. The other serotypes isolated were S. Rubislaw, S. Panama and S. Arechavaleta. All isolates were susceptible to amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, ampicillin, cefotaxime, ceftazidime, ciprofloxacin, enrofloxacin, gentamicin, nalidixic acid, imipenem and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. One isolate (S. Montevideo) showed resistance to tetracycline and intermediate resistance to streptomycin. The five isolated Salmonella serotypes are potential human pathogens suggesting that the mongoose may play a role in the epidemiology of human salmonellosis in Grenada.

Bait Matrix Flavor Preference by Mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) in Puerto Rico: Implications for Oral Rabies Vaccination

The small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) is the primary rabies vector in Puerto Rico. Mongooses are implicated in up to 74% of rabies cases on the island, and pose a threat to domestic animals and human health and safety. No rabies management program exists in Puerto Rico and development of an oral rabies vaccination program requires determining which flavors on the vaccine's bait coating matrix that are attractive to mongooses. Our objective was to evaluate preference among three flavors (cheese, coconut and fish) in the Ultralite bait matrix that is used for delivery of Rabies Vaccine, Live Adenovirus Vector (ONRAB ® ). Placebo baits were offered to free-ranging mongooses in two different ecological environments. The study was conducted at El Yunque National Forest and Cabo Rojo National Wildlife Refuge. At each site we established bait stations with three bait flavors offered simultaneously. We placed a remote camera at each station to monitor bait fate. Cheese ranked higher than fish flavor (W = 1473, P = 0.0273) and cheese and fish both ranked significantly higher than coconut (W = 2180.5, P < 0.0001 and W = 2065.0, P = 0.0008, respectively). These results suggest cheese and fish flavors should perform better than coconut flavor in attracting free-ranging mongooses to consume ONRAB ® baits in Puerto Rico.

ISOLATION AND RFLP GENOTYPING OFTOXOPLASMA GONDIIFROM THE MONGOOSE (HERPESTES AUROPUNCTATUS) IN GRENADA, WEST INDIES

Little is known of the genetic diversity and epidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii infection in wildlife in Caribbean Islands. The prevalence and genetic diversity of T. gondii in mongooses (Herpestes auropunctatus) was investigated. During 2011 and 2012, 91 mongooses were trapped in different parts of Grenada, bled, euthanized, and examined at necropsy. Antibodies to T. gondii were found in 27 mongooses tested by the modified agglutination test (cut-off titer 25). Muscles (heart, tongue, neck) of 25 of the seropositive mongooses were bioassayed for T. gondii infection in mice. Viable T. gondii was isolated by bioassay in mice from four mongooses with MAT titers of 1:50 in two, 1:200 for one, and 1:400 for one mongoose. The four T. gondii isolates were further propagated in cell culture. Strain typing of T. gondii DNA extracted from cell-cultured tachyzoites using the 10 PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) markers SAG1, SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1, and Apico revealed one isolate belongs to the Type III (ToxoDB #2) lineage, two to ToxoDB#7 lineage, and one to the ToxoDB #216 lineage. This is the first report of T. gondii isolation and genotyping in H. auropunctatus worldwide.

Differential population responses of native and alien rodents to an invasive predator, habitat alteration and plant masting

Invasive species and anthropogenic habitat alteration are major drivers of biodiversity loss. When multiple invasive species occupy different trophic levels, removing an invasive predator might cause unexpected outcomes owing to complex interactions among native and non-native prey. Moreover, external factors such as habitat alteration and resource availability can affect such dynamics. We hypothesized that native and non-native prey respond differently to an invasive predator, habitat alteration and bottom-up effects. To test the hypothesis, we used Bayesian state-space modelling to analyse 8-year data on the spatio-temporal patterns of two endemic rat species and the non-native black rat in response to the continual removal of the invasive small Indian mongoose on Amami Island, Japan. Despite low reproductive potentials, the endemic rats recovered better after mongoose removal than did the black rat. The endemic species appeared to be vulnerable to predation by mongooses, whose eradication increased the abundances of the endemic rats, but not of the black rat. Habitat alteration increased the black rat's carrying capacity, but decreased those of the endemic species. We propose that spatio-temporal monitoring data from eradication programmes will clarify the underlying ecological impacts of land-use change and invasive species, and will be useful for future habitat management.

Small Indian mongooses and masked palm civets serve as new reservoirs of Bartonella henselae and potential sources of infection for humans

AbstractThe prevalence and genetic properties of Bartonella species were investigated in small Indian mongooses and masked palm civets in Japan. Bartonella henselae, the causative agent of cat-scratch disease (CSD) was isolated from 15.9% (10/63) of the mongooses and 2.0% (1/50) of the masked palm civets, respectively. The bacteraemic level ranged from 3.0 × 101 to 8.9 × 103 CFU/mL in mongooses and was 7.0 × 103 CFU/mL in the masked palm civet. Multispacer typing (MST) analysis based on nine intergenic spacers resulted in the detection of five MST genotypes (MSTs 8, 14, 37, 58 and 59) for the isolates, which grouped in lineage 1 with MST genotypes of isolates from all CSD patients and most of the cats in Japan. It was also found that MST14 from the mongoose strains was the predominant genotype of cat and human strains. This is the first report on the isolation of B. henselae from small Indian mongooses and masked palm civets. The data obtained in the present study suggest that these animals serve as new reservoirs for B. henselae, and may play a role as potential sources of human infection.

Monitoring the effects of forest clear-cutting and mongoose Herpestes auropunctatus invasion on wildlife diversity on Amami Island, Japan

AbstractWildlife populations on Amami Island, Japan, have been affected by forest clear-felling and the introduction of alien species, in particular the mongoose Herpestes auropunctatus. We used monitoring data collected over 24 years to track changes in the population sizes of five species of mammals and 20 species of birds. We assigned species to the following groups: indigenous, rare, insectivorous, negatively affected by forest clear-cutting, and negatively affected by mongoose invasion. We examined trends in each group at four time points between 1985 and 2010 using two methods: species abundance estimates and the Living Planet Index. We then assessed the usefulness of these methods as tools for conservation planning. Inspecting species individually we identified four main patterns of abundance change: (a) an increase from the first to the last census period, (b) an increase in all periods except 2009–2010, (c) a decrease from 1985–1986 to 2001–2002 but an increase in 2009–2010, and (d) a decrease in all census periods. We observed certain relationships between these patterns and the species groups assigned as above. According to the Living Planet Index the group negatively affected by forest clear-cutting did not show significant recovery and the groups of rare species and species negatively affected by mongoose recovered to c. 40% of the original level after a sharp decline during 1985–2002. The Living Planet Index is a more useful tool for assessing the urgency of particular conservation needs, although limited information on species abundance reduces its representativeness for some groups.

Evaluating the “recovery level” of endangered species without prior information before alien invasion

For maintaining social and financial support for eradication programs of invasive species, quantitative assessment of recovery of native species or ecosystems is important because it provides a measurable parameter of success. However, setting a concrete goal for recovery is often difficult owing to lack of information prior to the introduction of invaders. Here, we present a novel approach to evaluate the achievement level of invasive predator management based on the carrying capacity of endangered species estimated using long-term monitoring data. In Amami-Oshima Island, Japan, where the eradication project of introduced small Indian mongoose is ongoing since 2000, we surveyed the population densities of four endangered species threatened by the mongoose (Amami rabbit, the Otton frog, Amami tip-nosed frog, and Amami Ishikawa's frog) at four time points ranging from 2003 to 2011. We estimated the carrying capacities of these species using the logistic growth model combined with the effects of mongoose predation and environmental heterogeneity. All species showed clear tendencies toward increasing their density in line with decreased mongoose density, and they exhibited density-dependent population growth. The estimated carrying capacities of three endangered species had small confidence intervals enough to measure recovery levels by the mongoose management. The population density of each endangered species has recovered to the level of the carrying capacity at about 20–40% of all sites, whereas no individuals were observed at more than 25% of all sites. We propose that the present approach involving appropriate monitoring data of native organism populations will be widely applicable to various eradication projects and provide unambiguous goals for management of invasive species.