Smallholder Households Research Articles

His, Hers, or Ours: Impacts of a Training and Asset Transfer Programme on Intra-Household Decision-Making in Zambia

This paper studies the effects of a multifaceted asset transfer programme on the decision-making dynamics of smallholder households. Constructing separate indexes of participation in household decision-making for adult females and males, and using difference-in-differences to assess the impact of livestock transfer and training, we find evidence that these interventions increased the share of decisions in which individuals participated, regardless of gender. Increases in decision-making participation by both men and women are driven by an increase in joint decision-making within the household on the extensive margin. Decisions made jointly by men and women increased by 16 per cent across all household activities, with statistically significant declines in independent decision-making by men and women. Findings are encouraging given the evidence of welfare gains associated both with increases in participation in decision-making by women as well as increased cooperation within households.

Gender and generational patterns of African deagrarianization: Evolving labour and land allocation in smallholder peasant household farming, 1980–2015

Abstract This article traces smallholder peasant household production and reproduction trends against the background of profound change in African agriculture’s terms of trade between 1980 and 2015. The gender and generational dynamics of African peasant households, which evolved under European colonial policies from the late 19th century and largely persisted in the early post-independence era, were disrupted by the 1970s oil crises. By the 1980s, peasant labor displacement was gaining momentum, as evidenced by declining smallholder commercial agriculture, often but not always accompanied by rural out-migration. Ensuing differentiated involvement of peasant smallholder family members in unfolding processes of deagrarianization and depeasantization are explored on the basis of statistical data and qualitative case studies. The article’s broad spatial focus and 35-year overview are accommodated in a human geography methodology, which synthesizes multi-disciplinary social scientists’ research findings on the gender/age division of labor, allocation of decision-making power and welfare provisioning patterns within smallholder households. Spatial and temporal analysis of sex/age ratios derived from published data on sectoral labour force participation, quantitative surveys of intra-household labour time allocation and national census population data provide insight into the differential effects of deagrarianization on household members. Salient trends are: labor contraction in male commercial peasant family farming, smallholder subsistence-based land cultivation squeezed by medium-scale commercial farmers, female resource control and labor autonomy continuing to be impinged by male patriarchal attitudes, and an emerging tendency for “older women left behind” in the countryside, who provide an agrarian fallback for returned migrant family members and other members engaged in local non-agricultural occupations needing subsistence food support.

Perception of Climate Change and Impact on Land Allocation and Income: Empirical Evidence from Vietnam's Delta Region

Using a sample survey from Vietnam's M&RRD, this study examines both the factors affecting smallholder households’ perceptions of climate change, and the impact of climatic change on smallholders’ income and land allocation decisions. Results show a significant and negative impact of perception of climate change on income of smallholder households. Smallholders with perceived climate changes reduce land allocated to paddy crop. Farmers make strategic decision to counter the negative effects of climate change by increasing the amount of rented land for paddy crop production, while at the same time decreasing the amount of owned land allocated to paddy crop.

Adoption of sustainable agricultural practices and food security threats: Effects of land tenure in Zambia

Among environmental challenges, sustainable agricultural practices (SAP) are imperative to attain better agricultural productivity and food security status of smallholder farms in sub-Saharan Africa, including in Zambia. To understand the adoption behavior of SAP of Zambian farmers in more depth, the study determines factors that influence the adoption probability of SAP. In particular, we study the effect of land tenure. Furthermore, the study tests the association of SAP use and food security of smallholder households. Data collection involved a structured questionnaire survey that was conducted in southern Zambia in 2016. The sample consisted of 400 households, 200 with customary and 200 with statutory land tenure. The probit regression analysis results indicate that land ownership influences the adoption of SAP in our sample. Households with customary land tenure had a 17.4%, 17.2% and 9.1% lower probability to adopt crop diversification, agroforestry and planting basins, respectively, than households with statutory tenure. Descriptive chi-square tests revealed that the implementation of crop diversification and agroforestry is associated with the food security status of smallholder households.

Eliminating malaria by 2040 among agricultural households in Africa: potential impact on health, labor productivity, education and gender equality

Background: Ambitious goals have been established to eradicate malaria by the year 2040. Suppressing malaria in rural agricultural communities in sub-Saharan Africa represents one of the greatest challenges to achieving malaria eradication given the poverty and high intensity of malaria transmission in these regions. The objective of this study is to examine how suppressing malaria among smallholder agricultural households in sub-Saharan Africa over the next two decades will affect progress towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals.Methods: Using agricultural census data and malaria morbidity data, we developed estimates of the number of malaria cases among smallholder agricultural households for each country in sub-Saharan Africa. Using these estimates as well as additional data from the literature, we analyzed how achieving malaria eradication by 2040 would affect indicators related to four Sustainable Development Goals: health, poverty, education and gender equality.Results: Our analysis found that achieving malaria eradication would prevent approximately 1 billion malaria cases and thereby decrease the number of lost work-days among agricultural households due to malaria morbidity by approximately 3.8 billion days. Eradicating malaria by 2040 would also increase the number of school days attended by children by 4.5 billion days while also reducing the number of caregiving days by women for malaria cases by approximately 1.9 billion days.Conclusions: This article analyzed the impact of eradicating malaria among smallholder agricultural households in sub-Saharan Africa in terms of four of the Sustainable Development Goals. Greater recognition of the non-health benefits of achieving malaria eradication could catalyze the agricultural sector to intensify their contributions to eradicating malaria.

Implications of Smallholder Farm Production Diversity for Household Food Consumption Diversity: Insights from Diverse Agro-Ecological and Market Access Contexts in Rural Tanzania

Owing to persistent challenges of food and nutritional insecurity, recent literature has focused on the role diversity of farm production has on food consumption diversity, particularly for smallholder households. Yet, the relationship between farm production diversity and household food consumption diversity remains complex and empirical evidence is, so far, mixed. The present article assesses this relationship using two districts—Kilosa and Chamwino—with contrasting agro-ecological and market contexts in rural Tanzania. These districts represent the majority of farming systems found in Tanzania as well as in several countries within the region. We used household data and employed descriptive as well as multivariate regression analyses. The results indicated a positive role of farm production diversity for food consumption diversity in the district with relatively harsh climatic and agro-ecological characteristics and poor access to markets. Furthermore, increased farm production diversity was generally associated with seasonal food consumption diversity. However, results suggested a lesser role of farm production diversity in the presence of better agro-ecological and market access characteristics. These findings imply that promoting farm production diversity should consider the existing agro-ecological and market characteristics. In addition, achieving increased food consumption diversity among rural households may require effective market related infrastructure and institutions.

Aquaculture feed technology adoption and smallholder household welfare in Ghana

This study employs double‐hurdle model and propensity score‐matching techniques to examine the determinants and extent of adoption and the welfare impacts of improved fish feed technology in Ghana using cross‐sectional data of fish‐farming households. The study focuses on the Ashanti, Brong Ahafo, and western regions of Ghana. The results show that the quantity of improved feed used on‐farm is far below what is technically recommended for maximum yield. The analysis provides evidence that the adoption of improved feed technology increases fish income, as well as reduces poverty among fish‐farming households in the study area. In order to spur the adoption and intensity of the technology, complementary factors such as improving education, delivery of extension services and credit facilities, expansion of area under fish farming, and reduction in the price of improved feed are recommended.

Enhancing adoption of agricultural technologies requiring high initial investment among smallholders

Low and slow adoption of improved agricultural technologies among smallholders often frustrate technology development and promotion efforts in the developing world. That is especially true for technologies requiring high initial investment. This study investigates how increasing farmers' awareness and exposure to new agricultural technologies through the creation of systematic linkages in the research-to-development continuum affect adoption. The double hurdle and duration analysis models were applied to a sample of 820 smallholder households producing wheat and barley in Syria. The results show that increasing exposure and awareness of the zero tillage technology through organized field days and demonstration trials, complemented with providing free access to costly zero tillage seeders for first-time users, increases the propensity, speed, and intensity of adoption. The intensity of adoption is also positively influenced by wheat acreage and farmers' access to credit. The findings of this study highlight the importance of facilitating farmers' initial exposure and ease of trying out new agricultural technologies, especially those requiring high initial investment, at low or no cost in ensuring fast and large-scale adoption.

Cooperatives, contract farming, and farm size: The case of tomato producers in Nepal

AbstractThis study investigates the impact of contract farming (CF) through cooperatives in tomatoes on employment and economic performance of smallholders in a low‐income developing country. Using farm‐level data from Nepal and a nonparametric matching estimator, the study finds a negative and significant effect of CF on employment. However, CF through cooperatives has a positive and significant impact on profits, and yield. We find that small farms (≤0.51 ha) with contracts tend to gain in profits and yield per hectare. However, large farms (>0.85 ha) with contracts employ significantly less hired labor per hectare. Finally, our estimates reveal that, compared to independent producers, smallholder households in Nepal that engaged in CF with both input and output conditions received, on average, higher profits and yield. Findings underscore the importance of cooperatives and CF. [EconLit citations: C31, D23, Q12, Q13]

Reconsidering non-traditional export agriculture and household food security: A case study in rural Guatemala.

As the production of non-traditional export (NTX) crops by smallholder households in developing countries expands, there is a compelling need to understand the potential effects of this type of agricultural production on household food security and nutrition. We use two household surveys with a sample of 52 households, interviews, and focus groups to examine whether smallholder farmers who produce broccoli for export in a rural Guatemalan community have different household food security than farmers in the same community who are still growing traditional maize and bean crops. We explore and compare the food security status of broccoli farmers (adopters) and traditional farmers (non-adopters) across four dimensions of food security: availability, access, utilization, and stability. Adopters earned significantly more income (40%) than non-adopters, but higher incomes did not coincide with improvements in food availability, food access, or food utilization. Results indicate that adopters and non-adopters alike struggle with access to food, while the intensity of broccoli production may be undermining the ability of local agricultural systems to naturally control pests and regulate nutrients. More systematic approaches to food security assessment, especially those that consider all four dimensions of food security, are needed to better target interventions designed to alleviate food insecurity among rural smallholders.

Integrated soil fertility management sequences for reducing climate risk in smallholder crop production systems in southern Africa

Climate change, increased climate variability and poor soil fertility are major bio-physical constraints to cropping on smallholder farms in southern Africa. We used the Agricultural Production Systems sIMulator (APSIM) to assess maize yield response to integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) rotational sequences of low-quality organic resources, nitrogen-fixing green manure and grain legumes, and mineral fertilizers under baseline (1960–2005) and projected (2040–2069) climates. APSIM was also employed to evaluate the response of maize yield to the ISFM sequences under a combination of a changing climate, and typical sowing dates and mineral fertilizer application rates for smallholder households of varying resource endowment. The ISFM sequences were ‘Fertilizer-start’ [a sunnhemp (Crotalaria juncea (L.)-based sequence], ‘Litter-start’ (a woodland litter-based sequence), and ‘Soya-start’ and ‘Manure-start’ (cattle manure-based sequences). The simulated maize grain yields were used to analyze agronomic and economic risks of maize productivity. Agronomic risk was evaluated on the basis of sufficiency of the maize grain yield to meet annual household calorie (energy) requirements, while economic risk was assessed using gross margins. For model evaluation, the simulated maize yields compared well with those measured from the field experiment (RMSE = 0.11–0.55; R2 = 0.55–0.93). Under the baseline climate, ‘Soya-start’ was the least risky ISFM option as only one (2.2%) of the 45 years had calories lower than the minimum acceptable limit of 4,872,750 kcal required to meet household food self-sufficiency for a family of six people. Conversely, continuous fertilized maize and ‘Litter-start’ were the most risky options among the fertilized treatments as three (6.7%) and four (8.9%) of the 45 years, respectively, yielded calories that were below the threshold. Across treatments, the number of years with maize grain yield exceeding 2.3 t ha−1 was higher under baseline compared with future climate. However, ‘Soya-start’ and ‘Manure-start’ were consistently the least risky options under the future climate. The cattle manure-based sequences also had the lowest economic risk under both baseline and future climates. Over the 45-year period under baseline climate, ‘Soya-start’ only had two years with negative gross margins compared with six and nine for ‘Litter-start’ and continuous fertilized maize, respectively. A similar trend was observed under future climate. Overall, agronomic risk was lowest under sowing dates and mineral fertilizer application rates for resource-endowed (RG1) farmers compared with their resource-constrained (RG3) counterparts. Agronomic risk was higher under the representative concentration pathway (RCP) 8.5 compared with RCP4.5, with an average increase of 6, 4 and 6% for RG1, resource-intermediate (RG2) and RG3 management, respectively. Under the typical farmer management practices, the cattle manure-based sequences gave lower agronomic risk than continuous fertilized maize. Economic risk under the farmer management scenarios overly mirrored trends observed for agronomic risk. We conclude that sequenced ISFM combinations of organic resources, nitrogen-fixing green manure and grain legumes, and mineral fertilizers reduce climate risk in smallholder rainfed crop production systems in southern Africa, and similar agroecologies.

Livestock and livelihoods of smallholder cattle-owning households in Cambodia: the contribution of on-farm and off-farm activities to income and food security.

The majority of smallholder farming households in Cambodia are rurally based and rely on agriculture to support their livelihoods. However, in recent years, growth in the agriculture sector has stagnated with farmers facing several challenges including declining prices for traditional crops and irregular rainfall patterns. This has led to a need for farmers to diversify income sources with livestock promoted as a more viable livelihood activity, particularly the raising of cattle and poultry. However, uncertain profitability of livestock activities is a common perception by smallholders, especially where animals have not been traditionally viewed as a primary income source. To address this, information is required which compares the income and expenses associated with livestock raising to other on-farm activities and off-farm sources. This study reports on a survey of livelihood survey of 17 male and 21 female representatives of 20 households owning cattle in Cambodia, comparing the associated income and expenses of the various livelihood activities in the 12-month period from January to December 2016. Combined total household income from both on-farm and off-farm sources ranged from USD875 to 17730 with an average of USD6779, representing 51% and 49% from on-farm and off-farm activities, respectively. Cattle raising was the most common source of on-farm income (85%), contributing USD1064 and representing 22% of total household income. General household expenses, such as food and transportation (including expenses associated with off-farm employment), represented the majority of total household expenses (79%). Gross profit calculations indicated higher values for pig raising (USD1841.79), cattle (USD950.80) and non-rice crops (USD884) whilst the highest gross margin value was recorded for cattle (89.33%) followed by vegetables (85.27%) and non-rice crops (83.08%). Whilst wet season and dry season rice returned a negative gross profit value of USD197.27 and USD90.60 on average per household, respectively, both were ranked as most important for household consumption, followed by poultry, providing the main source of energy (rice) and protein (chicken meat) and sustaining household food requirements. The study concludes that although smallholder cattle-owning households in Cambodia undertake a diverse range of on-farm activities, as cattle raising provides a superior income source due to higher returns and lower variable costs, it could be promoted as a preferred livelihood activity by agencies conducting rural extension activities. Although consideration of available labour and monetary funds to invest in cattle raising is required, it was observed that income from off-farm sources may prove beneficial in providing the additional monetary funds to support cattle-raising activities and assist in providing generally poor smallholder households with enhanced economic resilience.

Impact of aquaculture feed technology on fish income and poverty in Kenya

ABSTRACTThe impacts of improved agricultural technologies on smallholder households in Africa are well documented in the literature. However, the literature on the welfare impacts of aquaculture technologies, especially in the context of smallholder households, is very scanty. This paper applies the propensity score matching technique to household survey data to examine the impact of improved feed technology on fish income and poverty in Kenya. After controlling for observable household characteristics, the results indicate that improved feed technology increases aquaculture income and reduces poverty among fish farming households. Specifically, the income effect of the technology is 23–37%, with resultant poverty reduction effect of 19–23% points. Evidence from the study indicates that the likelihood of adopting improved feed in Kenya will surge with improved extension service delivery, access to government subsidized feed, and easy market access for purchasing improved feed and sale of mature fish.

Dietary diversity among smallholder households in Bukoba district, Tanzania and Kiboga district, Uganda

Undernutrition in developing countries continues to affect 780 million people resulting in poor growth and development; increasing the burden of disease and imposing a number of costs on the affected countries. The aim of this study was to establish the dietary diversity and consumption patterns among small-holder farming households. A cross-sectional study was carried out in Kiboga district, Uganda and Bukoba district, Tanzania with 220 and 199 households, respectively. Results from the 24 hour recall showed that white roots, tubers and bananas were the most consumed food group in the two districts with a significantly higher consumption in Kiboga than Bukoba. However, households in Bukoba had higher dietary diversity scores compared to those in Kiboga even though both districts had 52% of the households consuming diets with moderate dietary diversity. The percentage of households consuming vitamin A rich vegetables and fruits, and animal protein (flesh meats, organ meats and eggs) was negligible. There was no significant difference between food group consumption at household level and that of the youngest 6-59 month-old child within these households. High consumption of a food group and absence of a food group by the whole household was matched by the consumption of the children. Only 48% and 35% of caregivers in Kiboga and Bukoba, respectively reported preparing special meals for the child. Younger caregivers, ability of households to rent out land, and distance to market were variables that significantly influenced intake of vitamin A and iron but not protein. The results highlight opportunities for the promotion of vitamin A- rich fruits and vegetables, and protein foods in between the main household meals of the day, as well as avenues through which nutrition education can be reinforced to improve the knowledge and skills of the households, especially the decision makers and care givers of children under five years of age. Key words : Dietary diversity, Food groups, Household consumption, Smallholder, Vitamin A, Protein

Climate, crops, and forests: a pan-tropical analysis of household income generation

AbstractRural households in developing countries depend on crops, forest extraction and other income sources for their livelihoods, but these livelihood contributions are sensitive to climate change. Combining socioeconomic data from about 8,000 smallholder households across the tropics with gridded precipitation and temperature data, we find that households have the highest crop income at 21°C temperature and 2,000 mm precipitation. Forest incomes increase on both sides of this agricultural maximum. We further find indications that crop income declines in response to weather shocks while forest income increases, suggesting that households may cope by reallocating inputs from agriculture to forests. Forest production may thus be less sensitive than crop production to climatic fluctuations, gaining comparative advantage in extreme climates and under weather anomalies. This suggests that well-managed forests might help poor rural households to cope with and adapt to future climate change.

Recycling Improves Soil Fertility Management in Smallholdings in Tanzania

Residues from bioenergy and ecological sanitation (EcoSan) can be utilized to sustain soil fertility and productivity. With regard to certain cooking and sanitation technologies used in smallholder households (hh), we systematically analyzed how utilization of the respective potentials to recover residues for farming affects (i) soil nutrient balances, (ii) the potential for subsistence production of composts, and (iii) environmental emissions. On the example of an intercropping farming system in Karagwe, Tanzania, we studied specific farming practices including (1) current practices of using standard compost only; (2) a combination of using biogas slurry, urine, and standard compost; (3) a combination of using so-called “CaSa-compost” (containing biochar and sanitized human excreta, Project “Carbonization and Sanitation”), urine, and standard compost. The system analysis combines a soil nutrient balance (SNB) with material flow analysis (MFA). Currently, nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are depleted by −54 ± 3 and −8 ± 1 kg∙ha−1∙year−1, respectively. Our analysis shows, however, a clear potential to reduce depletion rates of N, and to reverse the SNB of P, to bring about a positive outcome. Composts and biogas slurry supply sufficient P to crops, while urine effectively supplements N. By using resources recovered from cooking and sanitation, sufficient compost for subsistence farming may be produced. Human excreta contribute especially to total N and total P in CaSa-compost, whilst biochar recovered from cooking with microgasifier stoves adds to total carbon (C) and total P. We conclude that the combined recycling of household residues from cooking and from sanitation, and CaSa-compost in particular, is especially suitable for sustainable soil management, as it mitigates existing P-deficiency and soil acidity, and also restores soil organic matter.

The Role of Employment Diversification in Reducing Vulnerability to Poverty among Marginal and Small-holder Agricultural Households in India

This article combines two relatively nascent and inter-related approaches to poverty analysis and measurement, that is, the asset-based approach and the vulnerability approach to assess the poverty status of various land-owning classes in rural India. Contingent on the finding that marginal and small-holder households constitute a high-risk group in terms of the incidence of current poverty and vulnerability to future poverty, the study explores the role of non-agricultural activity in providing livelihood security and tackling poverty and vulnerability among land-poor rural households. The findings reveal that while most types of rural non-farm employment have significant poverty-reducing effects, human capital constitutes the most potent element in tackling poverty in the target group. We therefore suggest that an emphasis on skill upgradation of marginal and small landholders, coupled with policies directed towards development of non-farm activity, could provide an effective, permanent solution for curbing poverty and mitigating livelihood risks among these households. JEL Classification: I31, I32, J21, O18

Recovery and adaptation after the 2015 Nepal earthquakes: a smallholder household perspective

Epstein, K., J. DiCarlo, R. Marsh, B. Adhikari, D. Paudel, I. Ray, and I. E. Måren. 2018. Recovery and adaptation after the 2015 Nepal earthquakes: a smallholder household perspective. Ecology and Society 23(1):29. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-09909-230129

How Do African Farm Households Respond to Changes in Current and Past Weather Patterns? A Structural Panel Data Analysis from Malawi

We use three waves of nationally representative household‐level panel data from Malawi to estimate a structural model characterizing the response of smallholder farm households to current and past weather patterns, and the subsequent impacts on household net income. We also quantify heterogeneity among households along the wealth spectrum regarding their ability to adapt to evolving weather patterns. This approach yields two key findings. First, adverse weather history prompts households to devote more time to maize cultivation on their own farms, to the detriment of other, possibly more remunerative income sources. Households also reduce application of productivity‐enhancing inputs, such as fertilizer and improved maize varieties, in response to adverse weather history. Our results are robust to different clustering structures and falsification tests aimed at ruling out alternative explanations to observed trends. Second, we find that, by maintaining a more diversified income structure, wealthier households are better able to adapt to adverse weather history. Consequently, adverse changes in past weather may be regressive in nature, creating a “climate‐induced” poverty trap that locks poor smallholder households into low‐value maize cultivation from season to season. This finding suggests that developing more weather‐resilient maize varieties and promoting smallholder livelihood diversification strategies may help mitigate the effects of adverse weather on the most vulnerable households.

Impact assessment of push-pull pest management on incomes, productivity and poverty among smallholder households in Eastern Uganda

The paper evaluates the impact of adoption of push-pull technology (PPT) on household welfare in terms of productivity, incomes and poverty status measured through per-capita food consumption in eastern Uganda. Push-pull is a habitat management strategy for the integrated management of stemborers, striga weeds and poor soil fertility involving the use of a natural repellent (push) and an attractant (pull). This biological technology simultaneously reduces the impact of three major production constraints to cereal-livestock farming in Africa − pests, weeds and poor soil. Cross sectional survey data were collected from 560 households in four districts in the region (Busia, Tororo, Bugiri and Pallisa), in November and December 2014. Generalized propensity scoring (GPS) was used to determine the intensity of adoption of the technology (i.e., land area allocated to PPT) and also to estimate the dose-response function (DRF) relating intensity of adoption and household welfare. Results revealed that with increased intensity of reported adoption of PPT, the probability of being poor declined through increased maize yield per unit area, incomes, and per capita food consumption. However, its impact varied with the intensity of adoption. With an increase in the area allocated to PPT from 0.025 to 1 acre, average maize yield per unit area increased from 27 kg to 1400 kg, average household income increased from 135 US$ (Uganda Shilling (USh) 370,000) to 273 US$ (USh 750,000) and per capita food consumption increased from 15 US$ (USh 40,000) to 27 US$ (USh 75,000). The average probability of a household being poor (below a rural poverty line of US$ 12.71) declined from 48% to 28%. These findings imply that increased investment in the dissemination and expansion of PPT is essential for poverty reduction among smallholder farmers in Uganda.