Small Group Processes Research Articles

“Strength and Safety in Numbers”: A Theoretical Perspective on Group Influences on Approach and Avoidance Motivation

This paper presents a theoretical framework that advances current understanding of motivational and affective causes and consequences of small group processes and behaviors. Theories on the approach and avoidance systems of motivation state that these systems are active in the presence of potential positive or negative outcomes, respectively. In many instances, groups are associated with rewards and are perceived to facilitate positive outcomes (“strength in numbers”), and are a source of security and thought to reduce the occurrence of negative outcomes (“safety in numbers”). Accordingly, group membership and interaction should impact activation of group members’ approach and avoidance motivation systems. Thus, systematic group influences on mood, information processing, perceptions, attention, and behavior should be expected. The integration of approach and avoidance theories with small group research can potentially broaden our knowledge of the group experience, and lead to a theoretical framework for investigations of goal-directed behaviors in group settings.

Interview with Dr. Ulrich von Hecker

Our interviewee is Dr. Ulrich von Hecker, PhD, researcher and lecturer in social psychology at Cardiff University. His research interests are in the area of social cognition, in particular the link between cognition and emotion. Dr. von Hecker studies how social schemata shape the way we perceive groups and social relations around us and involving us, and how social perception is affected by states of dysphoria and depression. He is also interested in power processes in small groups, and in the way we use language in the attributions of interpersonal events. His most recent project is on the neural correlates of generative reasoning in subclinical depression.

Using problem-based learning in a large classroom

Although PBL (problem-based learning) has gained increasing acceptance as an alternative to teacher-centered methods in nursing education, there are challenges to implementing this method in conventional course-based curriculums due to lack of additional faculty tutors to facilitate and monitor small group process. Little is known in nursing education regarding the effectiveness of teaching PBL in large group settings. [Woods, D. 1996. Problem-based Learning for Large Classes in Chemical Engineering. In: Wilkerson, L., Gijsaers, W. (Eds.), Bringing Problem-based Learning to Higher Education: Theory And Practice. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, pp. 91-99] suggests that there are significant challenges related to student acceptance of the method, monitoring small group process and evaluating the quality of students' work. This paper will provide a description of the process and outcome of using PBL in a second year Baccalaureate nursing course using both classroom and on-line learning technology. Findings from a student survey will be included to highlight the strengths and challenges of using PBL in a large group setting with one faculty tutor. Implications for using PBL in this format will be provided.

Emerging future issues in HIV/AIDS social research

Peter Piot (Executive Director of UNAIDS) challenged Bangkok International AIDS Conference attendees to think ahead 10 years or more so we will be prepared to meet the challenges that will face us [1]. Over this next decade, many formidable challenges are likely to stem from the interactions of social, ecological, political, and economic change; existing social structures; the changing HIV epidemic, and changes produced by emerging biomedicine and viral evolution. Although some challenges will be unpredictable, we should plan ahead for those we are able to anticipate. This paper identifies important social research issues regarding the changing global epidemic so funding agencies, journal editors, social science communities, individual researchers and students, non-governmental organizations, communitybased organizations, and the general public can debate them and, hopefully, act on them.

Organizational Leadership Theory Has Arrived: Gestalt Theory Never Left

AbstractSince its introduction in the late 1940s in the U.S., the theory and practice of Gestalt therapy has been applied to and integrated with small group process and leadership and organizational development. There is a gap in the literature with respect to Gestalt therapy, theory, and practice and organizational leadership theory and practice. Organizational leadership models began with an emphasis on the leader and matured to include attention to the field. Although Gestalt therapy theory and practice has always been about the relationship between the individual and the field, its focus wandered in the 1960s and 1970s by becoming “leader-heavy.” Organizational leadership models have come to embrace the relational emphasis that Gestalt therapy has always embodied. Transformational leadership models in particular share much in common with Gestalt therapy and practice.

A New You: Health for Every Body: Helping Adults Adopt a Health-Centered Approach to Well-Being

A New You: Health for Every Body is a health-focused, multimethod, experiential curriculum built around the principles of pleasurable and healthful eating, enjoyment of physically active living, and respect for body-size diversity. It creates a framework to help participants move away from unhealthy attitudes and behaviors in the areas of food and eating, physical activity, and body image and into a gentler, nondiet approach to well-being based on enjoyment of active living in a healthy body.The goal is for participants to develop new attitudes and gain new knowledge and skills to live and enjoy a healthy lifestyle (see the Program Philosophy sidebar). As shown in Table 1, the curriculum is organized into 10 1-hour sessions, with 1 supplemental lesson. However, there is flexibility for combining and adding lessons and activities, and guidance is provided for teaching the program in 4 2-hour sessions. The interactive lessons use a variety of audio/visual media, discussions, and small-group processes. Each lesson incorporates a physical activity break to get participants moving (Figures 1 and 2). “Words of wisdom” or WOW (quotations selected from WIN the Rockies qualitative research, which involved collection of people’s narratives or life stories) are incorporated into lessons and activities, adding context to and perspectives on the lesson topics.“On your own learning” activities provide opportunities for participants to practice the concepts taught after they leave the class and prepare for the next class. Educational and Theoretical Underpinnings

“Making a Lion into a Pussycat”: Working with Difficult Group Members

Objectives: The primary objective of this activity is to identify the role of interpersonal communication skills in the small group process. Secondary objectives include engaging students in a brainstorming activity and providing an opportunity for groups to determine ways to work with difficult group members Courses: Small-Group Communication, Business and Professional Communication, Hybrid Course

Feminist Therapy Practice

SUMMARY The authors describe a small group process of visioning what the practice of therapy would be like if feminist principles were valued and instituted. This visioning process was held at the annual conference of the Feminist Therapy Institute in Boston, MA, on November 3, 2002. Differences in the practice of psychology are imagined in a world where oppression and misuse of power are addressed or eradicated; those changes are imagined on local as well as global scales. Participants also looked at how the practice of psychotherapy might be different for the therapist. The vision stretches to include some of the ways to move toward this ideal from the present.

Feminist Therapy Practice: Visioning the Future

SUMMARY The authors describe a small group process of visioning what the practice of therapy would be like if feminist principles were valued and instituted. This visioning process was held at the annual conference of the Feminist Therapy Institute in Boston, MA, on November 3, 2002. Differences in the practice of psychology are imagined in a world where oppression and misuse of power are addressed or eradicated; those changes are imagined on local as well as global scales. Participants also looked at how the practice of psychotherapy might be different for the therapist. The vision stretches to include some of the ways to move toward this ideal from the present.

Intergroup Relations: Its Linguistic and Communicative Parameters

IT IS not difficult to argue that language and communication processes are a core element of the social psychology of intergroup relations (Clement, 1996; Giles & Reid, 2004; Gudykunst, 1986; Lambert, 1967); indeed, they are integral constituents of our group identities (Cargile, Giles, & Clement, 1996) and what differentiates us from other relevant outgroups. However, such a case has not always been easy to make, although it is clearly evident in a plethora of aspects of our communicative lives, including dress styles, cosmetics, marches, vigils, festivals, websites, music, etc. Language and communication received their first sustained attention in the group dynamics tradition, particularly with reference to the development of social comparison and dissonance theories (Festinger, 1954). Nevertheless, much of this early work conceptualized language as nothing more than a vehicle for (intra)group and psychological processes, notably decision making and leadership (e.g. Bales, 1956). The social context of group behavior was all but absent, and language was treated very much as a functional property of group life. However, this began to change in the 1970s when Giles (1977, 1978) invoked social identity theory to explain the sociolinguistic phenomenon of language shifts. This work led, in part, to an elaboration of speechand later communication-accommodation theory (e.g. Gallois, Ogay, & Giles, 2004; Giles & Coupland, 1991), parallel developments of ethnolinguistic identity theory (Giles & Johnson, 1981, 1987), anxiety/uncertainty reduction theory (Gudykunst, 1995), and many others (e.g. Barker, Giles, & Harwood, 2004). Core research foci include language attitudes (Bradac, Cargile, & Hallett, 2001), multilingualism (Sachdev & Bourhis, 2005), aging (Williams & Nussbaum, 2001), health (Harwood & Sparks, 2003), inter-ability communication (Fox & Giles, 1997), gender (Reid, Keerie, & Palomares, 2003; Smith, 1985), intercultural relations (Hecht, Jackson, & Pitts, 2005), terrorism (Sparks, in press), and so on and so forth. Meanwhile, more phenomena and areas of investigation are recognizing the intergroup dimension: small group processes (Hogg & Tindale, 2005), organizational processes (Gardner, Paulsen, Gallois, Callan, & Monaghan, G P I R

Issues in data monitoring and interim analysis of trials

To address issues about data monitoring committees (DMCs) for randomised controlled trials (RCTs). Electronic databases. Handsearching of selected books. Personal contacts with experts in the field. Systematic literature reviews of DMCs and small group processes in decision-making; sample surveys of: reports of RCTs, recently completed and ongoing RCTs and policies of major organisations involved in RCTs; case studies of four DMCs; and interviews with experienced DMC members. All focused on 23 prestated questions. Although still a minority, RCTs increasingly have DMCs. There is wide agreement that nearly all trials need some form of data monitoring. Central to the role of the DMC is monitoring accumulating evidence related to benefit and toxicity; variation in emphasis has been reflected in the plethora of names. DMCs for trials performed for regulatory purposes should be aware of any special requirements and regulatory consequences. Advantages were identified for both larger and smaller DMCs. There is general agreement that a DMC should be independent and multidisciplinary. Consumer and ethicist membership is controversial. The chair is recognised as being particularly influential, and likely to be most effective if he or she is experienced, understands both statistical and clinical issues, and is facilitating in style and impartial. There is no evidence available to judge suggested approaches to training. The review suggested that costs should be covered, but other rewards must be so minimal as to not affect decision-making. It is usual to have a minimum frequency of DMC meetings, with evidence that face-to-face meetings are preferable. It is common to have open sessions and a closed session. A report to a DMC should cover benefits and risks in a balanced way, summarised in an accessible style, avoiding excessive detail, and be as current as possible. Disadvantages of blinded analyses seem to outweigh advantages. Information about comparable studies should be included, although interaction with the DMCs of similar ongoing trials is controversial. A range of formal statistical approaches can be used, although this is only one of a number of considerations. DMCs usually reach decisions by consensus, but other approaches are sometimes used. The general, but not unanimous, view is that DMCs should be advisory rather than executive on the basis that it is the trial organisers who are ultimately responsible for the conduct of the trial. Some form of data monitoring should be considered for all RCTs, with reasons given where there is no DMC or when any member is not independent. An early DMC meeting is helpful, determining roles and responsibilities; planned operations can be agreed with investigators and sponsors/funders. A template for a DMC charter is suggested. Competing interests should be declared. DMC size (commonly three to eight people) is chosen to optimise performance. Members are usually independent and drawn from appropriate backgrounds, and some, particularly the chair, are experienced. A minimum frequency of meetings is usually agreed, with flexibility for more if needed. The DMC should understand and agree the statistical approach (and guidelines) chosen, with both the DMC statistician and analysis statistician competent to apply the method. A DMC's primary purpose is to ensure that continuing a trial according to its protocol is ethical, taking account of both individual and collective ethics. A broader remit in respect of wider ethical issues is controversial; arguably, these are primarily the responsibility of research ethics committees, trial steering committees and investigators. The DMC should know the range of recommendations or decisions open to it, in advance. A record should be kept describing the key issues discussed and the rationale for decisions taken. Errors are likely to be reduced if a DMC makes a thorough review of the evidence and has a clear understanding of how it should function, there is active participation by all members, differences are resolved through discussion and there is systematic consideration of the various decision options. DMCs should be encouraged to comment on draft final trial reports. These should include information about the data monitoring process and detail the DMC membership. It is recommended that groups responsible for data monitoring be given the standard name 'Data Monitoring Committee' (DMC). Areas for further research include: widening DMC membership beyond clinicians, trialists and statisticians; initiatives to train DMC members; methods of DMC decision-making; 'open' data monitoring; DMCs covering a portfolio of trials rather than single trials; DMC size and membership, incorporating issues of group dynamics; empirical study of the workings of DMCs and their decision-making, and which trials should or should not have a DMC.

Social influence in small groups: An interactive model of social identity formation

The present paper tries to overcome the dualism of group-level vs. individualistic analysis of small group processes, by presenting a model of social identity formation that incorporates factors at both levels of analysis as well as their interaction. On the basis of prior theorising in the social identity tradition and a programme of research spanning several interactive group research paradigms, we suggest that within small groups a social identity can operate as a contextual given, which shapes the behaviour of individuals within the group, as much as the behaviour of individuals within the group can shape social identity. This proposal is supported by a programme of research into social influence within small interactive groups. This research explores deductive (top-down) processes through which existing identities influence group processes, but also shows a reciprocal influence through which intragroup discussion creates a sense of group identity in the apparent absence of any direct intergroup comparison (an inductive, or bottom-up, path). It is the interaction between these two forces that we believe is characteristic of the way in which small groups achieve a sense of social identity. Supporting this view, we describe research that suggests that processes of identity formation play a key role in decision making, productive collaboration, consensualisation, integrative negotiations, and the development of shared cognition.

The Mentoring Lab: A Small Group Approach for Managing Emotions from Multicultural Counselor Training

In an attempt to enable counselors-in-training to work through the strong emotional reactions experienced during the multicultural counseling course, a small group approach called the Multicultural Mentoring Lab has been developed. The purpose of the Multicultural Mentoring Lab is to provide a supportive, nonjudgmental, small group environment for students to express thoughts, feelings, and experiences they may be reluctant to share in the larger classroom setting. Feedback from mentoring lab participants has been positive regarding the effects of the small group process for both processing emotions and enhancing multicultural competencies.

Small group processes relevant to data monitoring committees in controlled clinical trials: an overview of reviews

The quality of the decisions reached by data monitoring committees (DMCs) is crucial. The aim of this paper is to identify factors that may make errors more or less likely in small, task-oriented, decision-making expert groups and to consider the implications of these factors for data monitoring committees. A systematic overview was carried out of reviews of empirical studies of small group processes and decision errors in small, task-oriented decision-making groups in laboratory or real-world settings, published between 1950 and 2002 (n = 57 included reviews). These reviews suggest that a number of factors may increase the likelihood that small groups will make poor and potentially erroneous decisions. The most important of these, in terms of empirical support, are: biased or overly directive leadership, expression of a limited range of opinions during group discussion, poor procedures for identifying or appraising the available information, and presentation of the available information in a way that is likely to result in biased perception of it. The main implications for DMCs relate to membership, the role of the chairperson, the information provided for DMCs and training for DMC members. Selection methods that encourage a degree of diversity within the DMC are recommended. Chairs of DMCs should be experienced members, who have the skills to facilitate a discussion, can manage conflict effectively and can be impartial. Adherence to a prespecified analysis plan is recommended to reduce the risk of error associated with strong evidence or excess information. Training in the use of methodical decision-making procedures, education about the factors that influence decision quality and an opportunity to participate in mock DMC discussions may be of benefit for new members.

Learning not to teach: part two

Part one of this series of two articles sought to explain what happens within the inquiry-based learning tutorial group of one midwifery curriculum (vol 11(6): 376–9). In part two, important elements of the review tutorial are discussed. The development of a positive self-identity is achieved through peer and self-evaluation. This is fundamental to effective accountability and advocacy in midwifery practice. Facilitation of the small group process requires skills which have not been part of the lecturer's traditional responsibilities. Inquiry-based learning helps to address those things which may be ‘known’ but are not easily taught.

A dynamic model of top management team effectiveness: managing unstructured task streams

Leadership research relating top management team (TMT) demographics to firm performance has produced mixed empirical results. This article suggests a new explanation for these inconsistencies. We first note that a given TMT is likely to face a variety of different situations over time. Thus, while TMT demographic composition is relatively stable, the TMT task is dynamic and variable. In some situations, team members have similar information and interests (a symmetric distribution); in others, information or interests diverge (an asymmetric distribution). Based on team effectiveness theory, we argue that, unless group process is managed accordingly, asymmetric distributions of situation-specific information and interests will reduce TMT decision-making effectiveness. We then develop leader process choices to mitigate the potentially harmful effect of these asymmetries. These arguments form the basis of a theoretical model of TMT effectiveness that integrates insights from research on leadership, TMTs, small group process, and negotiation, and has practical implications for how leaders of senior teams can improve team effectiveness through appropriate process choices.

A Model for Training Master's Level Addiction Counselors in Group Process

ABSTRACT The authors present a model for teaching group at the master's level that integrates classroom with experiential group practice. The basis for this adult learning model is an understanding of addiction, a model of how people change, and an appreciation of the stages of group development. The components of the model are didactic presentation, class discussion, small and large group process, a clinical laboratory and faculty clinical supervision. A performance scale, the Group Leadership Effectiveness Scale, is utilized to evaluate student progress and complete this model.

A participatory approach to social impact assessment: the interactive community forum

The Interactive Community Forum is a method of social impact assessment that seeks community members' judgments of social impacts resulting from project alternatives in an environmental impact assessment. The method employs a participant-driven description of the social system along with a set of community constructs to guide in the identification of anticipated social impacts. A diversity of participants with different areas of community involvement are exposed to a structured small group process where information is shared and community-level impacts are deliberated. Based on group discussion, participants project social impacts and identify measures necessary for their mitigation. The Interactive Community Forum thereby provides a means to integrate local knowledge into an Environmental Impact Statement and inform environmental decision-making through a modified public involvement process.

Impact of group structure and process on multidisciplinary evidence-based guideline development: an observational study.

This paper presents selected results from a study investigating the impact of small group processes on the development of clinical practice guidelines by multidisciplinary panels. Observations of one panel developing a guideline for primary care over several months are reported here. Non-participant observation with content analy-sis of transcripts aided by field notes. Bales's interaction process analysis was used to categorize interactions in terms of their task-oriented or socioemotional qualities. This revealed a well-functioning, task-oriented group characterized by predominantly positive social behaviours. However, a breakdown of dialogue by speaker indicated a marked effect of professional role and status on the level of contribution to group discussions. This, and marked changes in panel composition across meetings, has implications for the multidisciplinarity of decision-making in such groups and hence for the acceptance and implementation of their outputs. These findings are likely to generalize to other health care settings in view of the growing emphasis on multidisciplinary decision-making and the clear status hierarchies inherent within the medical and allied fields.

Teaching EBM facilitation using small groups

The problem-centered, learner-focused, small-group process (PLS) is used by faculty to train learners in evidence-based medicine (EBM). Few affordable and accessible courses exist to train faculty in the PLS process. The results of a novel course to train faculty in the PLS process are described. The course was a one-day workshop consisting of five small group sessions with two facilitators. The participants were seven clinicians and four medical librarians. The initial small-group session was a discussion of concepts and principles related to successful facilitation skills; the subsequent four small groups reinforced these concepts and principles with role-playing and case scenarios using different steps in the EBM process. The course, including the use of the PLS process, scored highly on participant evaluations. The authors conclude that the introductory course effectively taught the PLS process for use in EBM facilitation.