Small Globular Proteins Research Articles

The H/D-Exchange Kinetics of the Escherichia coli Co-Chaperonin GroES Studied by 2D NMR and DMSO-Quenched Exchange Methods

We studied hydrogen/deuterium-exchange reactions of peptide amide protons of GroES using two different techniques: (1) two-dimensional 1H–15N transverse-optimized NMR spectroscopy and (2) the dimethylsulfoxide-quenched hydrogen-exchange method combined with conventional 1H–15N heteronuclear single quantum coherence spectroscopy. By using these techniques together with direct heteronuclear single quantum coherence experiments, we quantitatively evaluated the exchange rates for 33 out of the 94 peptide amide protons of GroES and their protection factors, and for the remaining 61 residues, we obtained the lower limits of the exchange rates. The protection factors of the most highly protected amide protons were on the order of 106–107, and the values were comparable in magnitude to those observed in typical small globular proteins, but the number of the highly protected amide protons with a protection factor larger than 106 was only 10, significantly smaller than the numbers reported for the small globular proteins, indicating that significant portions of free heptameric GroES are flexible and natively unfolded. The highly protected amino acid residues with a protection factor larger than 105 were mainly located in three β-strands that form the hydrophobic core of GroES, while the residues in a mobile loop (residues 17–34) were not highly protected. The protection factors of the most highly protected amide protons were orders of magnitude larger than the value expected from the equilibrium unfolding parameters previously reported, strongly suggesting that the equilibrium unfolding of GroES is more complicated than a simple two-state or three-state mechanism and may involve more than a single intermediate.

Total chemical synthesis of fully functional Photoactive Yellow Protein

The Photoactive Yellow Protein (PYP) is a structural prototype for the PAS superfamily of proteins, which includes hundreds of receptor and regulatory proteins from all three kingdoms of life. PYP itself is a small globular protein that undergoes a photocycle involving a series of conformational changes in response to light excitation of its p-coumaric acid chromophore, making it an excellent model system to study the molecular basis of signaling in the PAS super family. To enable novel chemical approaches to elucidating the structural changes that accompany signaling in PYP, we have chemically synthesized the 125 amino acid residue protein molecule using a combination of Boc chemistry solid phase peptide synthesis and native chemical ligation. Synthetic PYP exhibits the wildtype photocycle, as determined in photobleaching studies. Planned future studies include incorporation of site-specific isotopic labels into specific secondary structural elements to determine which structural elements are involved in signaling state formation using difference FTIR spectroscopy.

Length-dependent stability of α-helical peptide upon adsorption to single-walled carbon nanotube

Earlier studies have shown that the helical content of α-helical peptide decreases upon its interaction with carbon nanotube (CNT). Further, the length of the α-helix varies from few residues in the small globular protein to several number of residues in structural and membrane proteins. In structural and membrane proteins, helices are widely present as the supercoil i.e., helical bundles. Thus, in this study, the length-dependent interaction pattern of α-helical peptides with CNT and the stability of isolated α-helical fragment versus supercoiled helical bundle upon interaction with CNT have been investigated using classical molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. Results reveal that the disruption in the helical motif on interaction with CNT is directly proportional to the length of the helix. Also it is found that the shorter helix does not undergo noticeable changes in the helicity upon adsorption with CNT. On the other hand, helicity of longer peptides is considerably affected by its interaction with CNT. In contrast to the known fact that the stability of the helix increases with its length, the disruption in the helical peptide increases with its length upon its interaction with CNT. Comparison of results shows that structural changes in the isolated helical fragment are higher than that in supercoiled helix. In fact, helical chain in supercoiled bundle does not undergo significant changes in the helicity upon interaction with CNT. Both the length of the helical peptide and the inherent stability of the helical unit in the supercoiled helix influence the interaction pattern with the CNT.

Kinetic and Equilibrium Aspects of Adsorption and Desorption of Class II Hydrophobins HFBI and HFBII at Silicon Oxynitride/Water and Air/Water Interfaces

Hydrophobins are relatively small globular proteins produced by filamentous fungi. They display unusual high surface activity and are implied as mediators of attachment to surfaces, which has resulted in high scientific and technological interest. In this work we focus on kinetic and equilibrium aspects of adsorption and desorption properties of two representatives of class II hydrophobins, namely HFBI and HFBII, at a negatively charged hydrophilic solid/water interface and at the air/water interface. The layers formed at the air/liquid interface were examined in a Langmuir trough, whereas layers formed at the solid/liquid interface were studied using dual polarization interferometry (DPI) under different flow conditions. For comparison, another globular protein, lysozyme, was also investigated. It was found that both the adsorbed amount and the adsorption kinetics were different for HFBI and HFBII, and the adsorption behavior of both hydrophobins on the negatively charged surface displayed some unusual features. For instance, even though the adsorption rate for HFBI was slowed down with increasing adsorbed amount as expected from packing constraints at the interface, the adsorption kinetics curves for HFBII displayed a region indicating adsorption cooperativity. Further, it was found that hydrophobin layers formed under flow partly desorbed when the flow was stopped, and the desorption rate for HFBII was enhanced in the presence of hydrophobins in solution.

Ligand binding and self‐association cooperativity of β‐lactoglobulin

Unlike most small globular proteins, lipocalins lack a compact hydrophobic core. Instead, they present a large central cavity that functions as the primary binding site for hydrophobic molecules. Not surprisingly, these proteins typically exhibit complex structural dynamics in solution, which is intricately modified by intermolecular recognition events. Although many lipocalins are monomeric, an increasing number of them have been proven to form oligomers. The coupling effects between self-association and ligand binding in these proteins are largely unknown. To address this issue, we have calorimetrically characterized the recognition of dodecyl sulfate by bovine β-lactoglobulin, which forms weak homodimers at neutral pH. A thermodynamic analysis based on coupled-equilibria revealed that dimerization exerts disparate effects on the ligand-binding capacity of β-lactoglobulin. Protein dimerization decreases ligand affinity (or, reciprocally, ligand binding promotes dimer dissociation). The two subunits in the dimer exhibit a positive, entropically driven cooperativity. To investigate the structural determinants of the interaction, the crystal structure of β-lactoglobulin bound to dodecyl sulfate was solved at 1.64 Å resolution.

Mutual Macromolecular Crowding in Polymer Solutions

Ogston and Laurent conceived and established a theory for steric exclusion of spherical particles such as globular proteins by a suspension of randomly oriented fibers. In their model, a protein can just touch the surface of a fiber, so the space occupied by the fiber itself, in addition to a cylindrical shell with a thickness equal to the radius of the protein, are spaces excluded to the protein. In a suspension of many fibers, the effective concentration of the protein is increased, because the available volume is reduced. This model was successfully applied to explain a number of properties (association and conformational equilibria, partition between compartments, osmotic pressure, etc.) for solutions of proteins in the presence of flexible polymers such as hyaluronan (HA), and the relevance of steric exclusion to the properties of biological tissues was established. Because small globular proteins are excluded only from a cylindrical shell immediately surrounding a linear HA chain, the crowding effect is sensitive to the mass concentration of the polymer segments, but not the molecular mass of the polymer chain. Matsuoka and Cowman subsequently developed a semi-empirical expression to quantitatively account for the concentration, shape, and molecular mass dependence of physicochemical properties (steady shear viscosity, osmotic pressure, light scattering, etc.) of HA or other polymer solutions. A connection between the Ogston-Laurent and Matsuoka-Cowman approaches will be presented, providing a firm foundation for understanding polymer solution properties on the basis of mutual macromolecular crowding, where steric exclusion depends on the effective hydrodynamic volume of the polymer. This theory can be employed to explain the dependence of amyloid protein fibril formation on the molecular mass of crowding polymers.

The Early Events of the Protein Folding Process

One remarkable aspect of small globular proteins folding process is the fastness. However, different proteins of similar sizes may paradoxically present folding rates that differ by several orders of magnitude. In the present work we show how reliably a specific minimalist lattice model can reproduce such large range of folding characteristic times during the search stage of the protein folding process. We select nine representative protein-like (compact) structures, which illustrate distinct combinations of cooperative and non-cooperative structural patterns. The respective sequences of residues are designed by a general rule, and then submitted to extensive Monte Carlo simulations to determine the characteristic folding time of each target structure. Our results reproduce the experimentally observed exponential-like folding kinetics --of small, two-state globular proteins, and strongly support the idea that the search mechanism for the native structure is fully governed by the hydrophobic effect and steric constraints. The present results are achieved through the application of nonextensive statistical mechanics. Keywords: Protein folding, Stereochemical model, Monte Carlo, Nonextensive, Superstatistics, hydrophobic, minimalist lattice, thermodynamic, natural residues.

Exploring Protein Energy Landscapes with Time-Dependent Principal Component Analysis

Protein function crucially depends on protein dynamics. Large-scale molecular dynamics simulations of small globular proteins show an anomalous diffusion behavior for the principal motions of proteins over multiple time scales. Specifically the variance of the essential principal components increases with a power law σ ∼ T α with trajectory length T. This behavior suggests a hierarchical structure of the energy landscape as first proposed by Frauenfelder.To quantify how the anomalous diffusion exponents found in the molecular dynamics simulations give insight into the hierarchical structure of the underlying energy landscape, we compared our results to the simple discrete energy landscape shown in the figure. In this model, a hierarchy of energy barriers separating adjecent states is assumed. This hierarchy is characterized by its “ruggedness” ΔF as shown in the figure. We show that ΔF can be derived from the power law exponent α measured in the simulations via ΔF=log(2)(2/α-1). Typical values of 5-7 kT are obtained.View Large Image | View Hi-Res Image | Download PowerPoint Slide

The Molecular Mechanism Underlying Mechanical Anisotropy of the Protein GB1

Mechanical responses of elastic proteins are crucial for their biological function and nanotechnological use. Loading direction has been identified as one key determinant for the mechanical responses of proteins. However, it is not clear how a change in pulling direction changes the mechanical unfolding mechanism of the protein. Here, we combine protein engineering, single-molecule force spectroscopy, and steered molecular dynamics simulations to systematically investigate the mechanical response of a small globular protein GB1. Force versus extension profiles from both experiments and simulations reveal marked mechanical anisotropy of GB1. Using native contact analysis, we relate the mechanically robust shearing geometry with concurrent rupture of native contacts. This clearly contrasts the sequential rupture observed in simulations for the mechanically labile peeling geometry. Moreover, we identify multiple distinct mechanical unfolding pathways in two loading directions. Implications of such diverse unfolding mechanisms are discussed. Our results may also provide some insights for designing elastomeric proteins with tailored mechanical properties.

A unified NMR strategy for high-throughput determination of backbone fold of small proteins

An efficient semi-automated strategy called PFBD (i.e. Protein Fold from Backbone Data only) has been presented for rapid backbone fold determination of small proteins. It makes use of NMR parameters involving backbone atoms only. These include chemical shifts, amide-amide NOEs and H-bonds. The backbone chemical shifts are obtained in an automated manner from the orthogonal 2D projections of variants of HNN and HN(C)N experiments (Kumar et al., in Magn Reson Chem 50(5):357-363, 2012) using AUTOBA (Borkar et al. in J Biomol NMR 50(3):285-297, 2011); backbone H-bonds are manually derived from constant time long-range 2D-HnCO spectrum (Cordier and Grzesiek in J Am Chem Soc 121:1601-1602, 1999); and amide-amide NOEs are derived from 3D HNCO NOESY experiment which provides NOEs along the direct (1)H dimension that has maximum resolution (Lohr and Ruterjans in J Biomol NMR 9(1):371-388, 1997). All the experiments needed for the execution of PFBD can be recorded and analyzed in about 24-48h depending upon the concentration of the protein and dispersion of amide cross-peaks in the (1)H-(15)N correlation spectrum. Thus, we believe that the strategy, because of its speed and simplicity will be very valuable in Biomolecular NMR community for high-throughput structural proteomics of small folded proteins of MW<10-12kDa, the regime where NMR is generally preferred over X-ray crystallography. The strategy has been validated and demonstrated here on two small globular proteins: human ubiquitin (76 aa) and chicken SH3 domain (62 aa).

Information-theoretic analysis and prediction of protein atomic burials: on the search for an informational intermediate between sequence and structure

It has been recently suggested that atomic burials, as expressed by molecular central distances, contain sufficient information to determine the tertiary structure of small globular proteins. A possible approach to structural determination from sequence could therefore involve a sequence-to-burial intermediate prediction step whose accuracy, however, is theoretically limited by the mutual information between these two variables. We use a non-redundant set of globular protein structures to estimate the mutual information between local amino acid sequence and atomic burials. Discretizing central distances of or atoms in equiprobable burial levels, we estimate relevant mutual information measures that are compared with actual predictions obtained from a Naive Bayesian Classifier (NBC) and a Hidden Markov Model (HMM). Mutual information density for 20 amino acids and two or three burial levels were estimated to be roughly 15% of the unconditional burial entropy density. Lower estimates for the mutual information between local amino acid sequence and burial of a single residue indicated an increase in mutual information with the number of burial levels up to at least five or six levels. Prediction schemes were found to efficiently extract the available burial information from local sequence. Lower estimates for the mutual information involving single burials are consistently approached by predictions from the NBC and actually surpassed by predictions from the HMM. Near-optimal prediction for the HMM is indicated by the agreement between its density of prediction information and the corresponding density of mutual information between input and output representations. The dataset of protein structures and the prediction implementations are available at http://www.btc.unb.br/ (in 'Software').

Reprint of “Application of phase sensitive two-dimensional correlated spectroscopy (COSY) for measurements of 1H–1H spin–spin coupling constants in proteins”

Two-dimensional correlated spectroscopy (COSY) is used for measurements of proton-proton spin-spin coupling constants in protein 1H NMR spectra. High digital resolution along the frequency axis ω2 is achieved by placing the carrier frequency in the center of the spectrum, using quadrature detection in both dimensions and presenting the spectrum in the phase sensitive mode. Compared to other techniques for studies of spin-spin coupling constants, COSY provides greatly improved spectral resolution. This is illustrated by experiments with H2O solutions of the small globular protein BUSI IIA (bull seminal inhibitor IIA).

Rheology and microstructure of bimodal particulate dispersions: Model for foods containing fat droplets and starch granules

The influence of fat content and emulsifier type on the rheology, optical properties, stability, and microstructure of bimodal particle suspensions containing small fat droplets and large starch particles was studied. Fat droplets were coated by either small molecule surfactants (non-ionic/anionic mixture) or globular proteins (whey protein). Mixed systems containing oil droplets (0 to 30wt.%) and modified starch (5wt.%) were heated (90°C for 5min) to promote starch gelatinization. The flow behavior, yield stress, and apparent viscosity of these systems were determined from shear stress versus shear rate measurements. For both emulsifiers, the yield stress of the mixed systems increased with increasing fat content, indicating that a close-packed system was formed. The apparent viscosity (at 20s−1) increased with increasing fat content for protein-coated fat droplets as expected from theory, but it increased and then decreased for surfactant-coated lipid droplets. The unexpected behavior of the surfactant-based mixed systems was attributed to droplet coalescence and phase separation, as shown by microscopy and visual observation. Overall, these results have important implications for designing high quality food products (such as sauces, dressings, and desserts) with reduced calories.

Visualizing transient protein-folding intermediates by tryptophan-scanning mutagenesis

To understand how proteins fold, assemble and function, it is necessary to characterize the structure and dynamics of each state they adopt during their lifetime. Experimental characterization of the transient states of proteins remains a major challenge because high-resolution structural techniques, including NMR and X-ray crystallography, cannot be directly applied to study short-lived protein states. To circumvent this limitation, we show that transient states during protein folding can be characterized by measuring the fluorescence of tryptophan residues, introduced at many solvent-exposed positions to determine whether each position is native-like, denatured-like or non-native-like in the intermediate state. We use this approach to characterize a late-folding-intermediate state of the small globular mammalian protein ubiquitin, and we show the presence of productive non-native interactions that suggest a 'flycatcher' mechanism of concerted binding and folding.

Determination of 15N chemical shift anisotropy from a membrane-bound protein by NMR spectroscopy.

Chemical shift anisotropy (CSA) tensors are essential in the structural and dynamic studies of proteins using NMR spectroscopy. Results from relaxation studies in biomolecular solution and solid-state NMR experiments on aligned samples are routinely interpreted using well-characterized CSA tensors determined from model compounds. Since CSA tensors, particularly the (15)N CSA, highly depend on a number of parameters including secondary structure, electrostatic interaction, and the amino acid sequence, there is a need for accurately determined CSA tensors from proteins. In this study, we report the backbone amide-(15)N CSA tensors for a 16.7-kDa membrane-bound and paramagnetic-heme containing protein, rabbit Cytochrome b(5) (cytb(5)), determined using the (15)N CSA/(15)N-(1)H dipolar transverse cross-correlation rates. The mean values of (15)N CSA determined for residues in helical, sheet, and turn regions are -187.9, -166.0, and -161.1 ppm, respectively, with an overall average value of -171.7 ppm. While the average CSA value determined from this study is in good agreement with previous solution NMR experiments on small globular proteins, the CSA value determined for residues in helical conformation is slightly larger, which may be attributed to the paramagnetic effect from Fe(III) of the heme unit in cytb(5). However, like in previous solution NMR studies, the CSA values reported in this study are larger than the values measured from solid-state NMR experiments. We believe that the CSA parameters reported in this study will be useful in determining the structure, dynamics, and orientation of proteins, including membrane proteins, using NMR spectroscopy.

Solution pH That Minimizes Self-Association of Three Monoclonal Antibodies Is Strongly Dependent on Ionic Strength

Monoclonal antibodies display highly variable solution properties such as solubility and viscosity at elevated concentrations (>50 mg/mL), which complicates antibody formulation and delivery. To understand this complex behavior, it is critical to measure the underlying protein self-interactions that govern the solution properties of antibody suspensions. We have evaluated the pH-dependent self-association behavior of three monoclonal antibodies using self-interaction chromatography for a range of pH values commonly used in antibody formulations (pH 4.4-6). At low ionic strength (<25 mM), we find that each antibody is more associative at near-neutral pH (pH 6) than at low pH (pH 4.4). At high ionic strength (>100 mM), we observe the opposite pH-dependent pattern of antibody self-association. Importantly, this inversion in self-association behavior is not unique to multidomain antibodies, as similar pH-dependent behavior is observed for some small globular proteins (e.g., ribonuclease A and α-chymotrypsinogen). We also find that the opalescence of concentrated antibody solutions (90 mg/mL) is minimized at low ionic strength at pH 4.4 and high ionic strength at pH 6, in agreement with the self-interaction measurements conducted at low antibody concentrations (5 mg/mL). Our results highlight the complexity of antibody self-association and emphasize the need for systematic approaches to optimize the solution properties of concentrated antibody formulations.

Rapid calculation of protein chemical shifts using bond polarization theory and its application to protein structure refinement

Although difficult to analyze, NMR chemical shifts provide detailed information on protein structure. We have adapted the semi-empirical bond polarization theory (BPT) to protein chemical shift calculation and chemical shift driven protein structure refinement. A new parameterization for BPT amide nitrogen chemical shift calculation has been derived from MP2 ab initio calculations and successfully evaluated using crystalline tripeptides. We computed the chemical shifts of the small globular protein ubiquitin, demonstrating that BPT calculations can match the results obtained at the DFT level of theory at very low computational cost. In addition to the calculation of chemical shift tensors, BPT allows the calculation of chemical shift gradients and consequently chemical shift driven geometry optimizations. We applied chemical shift driven protein structure refinement to the conformational analysis of a set of Trypanosoma brucei (the causative agent of African sleeping sickness) tryparedoxin peroxidase Px III structures. We found that the interaction of Px III with its reaction partner Tpx seems to be governed by conformational selection rather than by induced fit.

Speeding up direct 15N detection: hCaN 2D NMR experiment

Experiments detecting low gyromagnetic nuclei have recently been proposed to utilize the relatively slow relaxation properties of these nuclei in comparison to (1)H. Here we present a new type of (15)N direct-detection experiment. Like the previously proposed CaN experiment (Takeuchi et al. in J Biomol NMR 47:271-282, 2010), the hCaN experiment described here sequentially connects amide (15)N resonances, but utilizes the initial high polarization and the faster recovery of the (1)H nucleus to shorten the recycling delay. This allows recording 2D (15)N-detected NMR experiments on proteins within a few hours, while still obtaining superior resolution for (13)C and (15)N, establishing sequential assignments through prolines, and at conditions where amide protons exchange rapidly. The experiments are demonstrated on various biomolecules, including the small globular protein GB1, the 22kDa HEAT2 domain of eIF4G, and an unstructured polypeptide fragment of NFAT1, which contains many SerPro sequence repeats.

Exploring Weak, Transient Protein–Protein Interactions in Crowded In Vivo Environments by In-Cell Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

Biology relies on functional interplay of proteins in the crowded and heterogeneous environment inside cells, and functional protein interactions are often weak and transient. Thus, methods that preserve these interactions and provide information about them are needed. In-cell nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is an attractive method for studying a protein's behavior in cells because it may provide residue-level structural and dynamic information, yet several factors limit the feasibility of protein NMR spectroscopy in cells; among them, slow rotational diffusion has emerged as the most important. In this paper, we seek to elucidate the causes of the dramatically slow protein tumbling in cells and in so doing to gain insight into how the intracellular viscosity and weak, transient interactions modulate protein mobility. To address these questions, we characterized the rotational diffusion of three model globular proteins in Escherichia coli cells using two-dimensional heteronuclear NMR spectroscopy. These proteins have a similar molecular size and globular fold but very different surface properties, and indeed, they show very different rotational diffusion in the E. coli intracellular environment. Our data are consistent with an intracellular viscosity approximately 8 times that of water, too low to be a limiting factor for observation of small globular proteins by in-cell NMR spectroscopy. Thus, we conclude that transient interactions with cytoplasmic components significantly and differentially affect the mobility of proteins and therefore their NMR detectability. Moreover, we suggest that an intricate interplay of total protein charge and hydrophobic interactions plays a key role in regulating these weak intermolecular interactions in cells.

Contribution of Disulfide Bonds to Stability, Folding, and Amyloid Fibril Formation: The PI3-SH3 Domain Case

The failure of proteins to fold or to remain folded very often leads to their deposition into amyloid fibrils and is the origin of a variety of human diseases. Accordingly, mutations that destabilize the native conformation are associated with pathological phenotypes in several protein models. Protein backbone cyclization by disulfide bond crosslinking strongly reduces the entropy of the unfolded state and, usually, increases protein stability. The effect of protein cyclization on the thermodynamic and kinetics of folding has been extensively studied, but little is know on its effect on aggregation reactions. The SRC homology 3 domain (SH3) of p85α subunit of bovine phosphatidyl-inositol-3'-kinase (PI3-SH3) domain is a small globular protein, whose folding and amyloid properties are well characterized. Here we describe the effect of polypeptide backbone cyclization on both processes. We show that a cyclized PI3-SH3 variant is more stable, folds faster, aggregates slower, and forms conformationally and functionally different amyloid fibrils than the wild-type domain. Disulfide bridges may act as key molecular determinants of both productive protein folding and deleterious aggregation reactions.