Small Geographic Range Research Articles

CARACTERÍSTICAS DETERMINANTES DO RISCO DE EXTINÇÃO GLOBAL DE MAMÍFEROS

Normal 0 21 false false false PT-BR X-NONE X-NONE /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Tabela normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin-top:0cm; mso-para-margin-right:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:10.0pt; mso-para-margin-left:0cm; line-height:115%; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-fareast-language:EN-US;} CHARACTERISTICS DETERMINANTS OF GLOBAL EXTINCTION RISK OF MAMMALS. About one-quarter of all mammals are in danger of extinction and is essential to the Conservation Biology identifying the factors that predict extinction risk. Some studies have made considerable efforts to recognize the relevant characteristics associated to vulnerability of extinction. In order to investigate if there is a consensus about what characteristics were more related to the extinction risk of mammals, we reviewed all the literature that found attributes of species correlated with vulnerability degree. Our results show that species of mammals tend to have a higher risk of extinction if they occupy small geographical range, have large body size and exhibit low reproductive rate, however they may differ according to the taxon and region studied. For example, carnivores shown to be greatly affected by low fecundity, while the same is not observed for primates. Furthermore, larger species are at higher risk only in tropical regions. The interaction between biological traits and anthropogenic threats increase understanding of the processes determining extinction risk. Keywords: Conservation; endangered species; fecundity; body size; geographical range.

Fine-scale genetic structure of an endangered population of the Mormon metalmark butterfly (Apodemia mormo) revealed using AFLPs

We investigated the genetic structure and diversity of an endangered Canadian population of the Mormon metalmark butterfly (Apodemia mormo) using, for the first time, amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers generated from non-lethal samples of butterfly wing tissue. Based on 326 loci, our analyses show a high degree of spatial genetic structure within the population, indicating limited gene flow, despite a small geographic range (<20 km). We found that geographic distance, particularly measured along valley bottoms, restricts gene flow within this population. However, other potential barriers to movement and genetic exchange were also identified, in particular urban development. Overall, the population exhibited low levels of genetic diversity. Future management should focus on increasing gene flow between the most isolated sub-populations, and through urban areas, by preserving and restoring as many habitat patches as possible.

Predicting the effects of climate change on reproductive fitness of an endangered montane lizard, Eulamprus leuraensis (Scincidae)

A shift in climatic conditions may directly modify critical organismal traits (such as reproductive output and offspring phenotypes), and experimental studies to document such direct effects thus may clarify the impacts of climate change on the species involved. The endangered Blue Mountains Water Skink (Eulamprus leuraensis) exhibits several traits predicted to imperil it under climate change: ectothermy, low reproductive output, specialisation to a restricted habitat type, montane endemicity, and a small geographic range. Congeneric species exhibit temperature-dependent sex determination, increasing potential sensitivity to climate change. We maintained wild-caught female lizards throughout pregnancy under thermal conditions simulating a shift in basking-time availability (3 vs 7 h/day) as might occur under climate change. Females with longer basking opportunities per day gave birth 2 weeks earlier, to slightly smaller offspring, that grew much faster in the first few weeks of life. Importantly, offspring sex ratios were not affected by maternal thermal regimes. Hence, some traits (e.g., offspring size, growth rates, dates of birth) are sensitive to ambient thermal conditions whereas other traits (e.g., offspring sex ratio and sprint speed) are not. On balance, the greatest threat to population persistence for E. leuraensis under climate change is likely to involve indirect effects mediated via habitat degradation (especially, drying-out of the hanging swamps) rather than direct thermal effects on lizard reproductive output or offspring phenotypes.

Spatial and Temporal Variation in Vector Competence of Culex pipiens and Cx. restuans Mosquitoes for West Nile Virus

Vector competence, the probability that a vector will transmit a pathogen after feeding on an infected host, is known to vary among vector species, populations, days since feeding, and temperature during the extrinsic incubation period. However, the extent of spatio-temporal variability and consistency in vector competence of populations is not known. We examined vector competence of Culex pipiens Linnaeus and Cx. restuans Theobald mosquitoes for West Nile virus collected over 3 years from 17 sites to measure spatial and temporal scales of variation in vector competence. We found extreme variation with 0-52% of mosquitoes transmitting West Nile virus at a single site between different sampling periods, and similar variation across populations. However, we also found that within a smaller geographic range, vector competence varied somewhat synchronously, suggesting that environmental and population genetic factors might influence vector competence. These results highlight the spatio-temporal variability in vector competence and the role of local processes.

Douglasia conservatorum (Primulaceae), a New Species from Idaho and Montana, U.S.A

Douglasia conservatorum Björk is described as a new species from a single population in the Coeur d'Alene Mountains along the Idaho/Montana border in the United States. With other members of the genus, it shares a pink corolla color, branched and stellate trichomes, and pulvinate habit. Within Douglasia Lindl., it is unique in possessing papillae on the leaves, and additionally differs in its combination of traits of leaf shape, flower number, shape of the involucre bracts, and distribution and morphology of trichomes. Its morphology and range suggest that it is related to other temperate-climate Douglasia species, in contrast to all species in the northern, (sub)Arctic center of diversity. A key to Douglasia is presented. Like all other members of the genus, D. conservatorum is endemic to a small geographic range. The ecology and conservation priority of the species are discussed.

Rarity and extinction risk in coral reef angelfishes on isolated islands: interrelationships among abundance, geographic range size and specialisation

Determining the species most vulnerable to increasing degradation of coral reef habitats requires identification of the ecological traits that increase extinction risk. In the terrestrial environment, endemic species often face a high risk of extinction because of an association among three traits that threaten species persistence: small geographic range size, low abundance and ecological specialisation. To test whether these traits are associated in coral reef fishes, this study compared abundance and specialisation in endemic and widespread angelfishes at the remote Christmas and Cocos Islands in the Indian Ocean. The interrelationships among traits conferring high extinction risk in terrestrial communities did not apply to these fishes. Endemic angelfishes were 50–80 times more abundant than widespread species at these islands. Furthermore, there was no relationship between abundance and ecological specialisation. Endemic species were not more specialised than widespread congeners and endemics used similar resources to many widespread species. Three widespread species exhibited low abundance and some degree of specialisation, which may expose them to a greater risk of local extinction. For endemic species, high abundance and lack of specialisation on susceptible habitats may compensate for the global extinction risk posed by having extremely small geographic ranges. However, recent extinctions of small range reef fishes confirm that endemics are not immune to the increasing severity of large-scale disturbances that can affect species throughout their geographic range.

Variation and plasticity of photosynthesis and respiration in local populations of fat‐hen Chenopodium album in northern Japan

AbstractTo examine variation and plasticity of photosynthesis and dark respiration among regional populations, seven populations of Chenopodium album L. (a shade‐avoider species) were collected in northern Japan and grown under shaded and unshaded conditions. The light‐saturated photosynthetic rates (Pmax) on both a leaf area and a mass basis significantly differed among the populations; the light regime affected Pmax per leaf area, but had no effect on Pmax per leaf mass. There were no significant differences among the populations in dark respiration rates (Rd) either per leaf area or mass; the light regime affected Rd per leaf area, but had no effect on Rd per leaf mass. Specific leaf area (SLA) exhibited significant differences among populations and SLA significantly increased under shaded conditions. None of these traits showed clinal variation along a latitudinal gradient, partially because the climatic span across which the populations were collected was relatively small (13.9–18.9°C). Pmax, SLA and α (initial slope at zero irradiance of the light‐photosynthetic rate relationship curve) showed great genetic variation, whereas Rd showed little genetic variation. Pmax and Rd showed high plasticity on a leaf area basis, but not on a leaf mass basis as SLA and α had high plasticity. We found that there is great genetic variation between local populations of C. album within a small geographical range, which controlled plasticity of the reaction norm of the photosynthetic property for the light regime during the growth period. More variation in reaction norms would enable C. album populations to colonize unpredictable habitats. Genetic variation after long‐term adaptation to habitat conditions as well as plasticity during short‐term acclimation to an unpredictable environment could enable C. album to distribute itself successfully over a wide range of climates.

A New Species of Cnemidophorus from the Jalapão Region, in the Central Brazilian Cerrado

The Cerrado is one of the richest tropical savannas and is considered a biodiversity “hotspot.” It is estimated that, at the current rate of loss, the ecosystem will disappear by the year 2030. The number of new species being discovered in the Cerrado has increased linearly, especially over the last 50 years. We describe a new species of Cnemidophorus from the Jalapão region, in the northern Cerrado biome, Brazil. Linear discriminant analyses and a naïve Bayesian model indicated that a combination of meristic counts (femoral pores, scales around tail, prefemorals, dorsals, and supralabials) and categorical variables derived from pholidosis and coloration clearly distinguish the new species from its congeners. The new species is apparently parapatric with C. mumbuca, the two species occurring on opposite banks of the Novo River. The two species are ecologically and morphologically similar, sharing a small body size, a fixed clutch size of a single egg, and a small number of femoral pores. The new species is apparently endemic to the Jalapão region, in the northern portion of the Cerrado biome. Its small size and restricted geographic range are consistent with findings from Cerrado anurans that undescribed species tend to be small and have reduced ranges. These results highlight the urgency of biotic surveys in Cerrado in face of its accelerated pace of destruction.

Life‐history traits associated with fragmentation vulnerability of lizards in the Thousand Island Lake, China

AbstractFollowing habitat fragmentation, the remnant faunal community will undergo a period of species loss or ‘relaxation.’ Theory predicts that species with particular life‐history traits, such as a small population size, small geographical range, low fecundity and large body size, should be more vulnerable to fragmentation. In this study, we investigated the relationships between the above life‐history traits and the fragmentation vulnerability index (the number of islands occupied) of five lizard species inhabiting recently isolated land‐bridge islands in the Thousand Island Lake, China. Data on life‐history traits were collected from field surveys (population density) and from the literature (body size, clutch size and geographical range size). The species–area relationships for lizards sampled from the mainland versus on the islands differed significantly (i.e. the number of species inhabiting islands was decreased relative to similar‐sized areas on the mainland), indicating that species extinction has occurred on all of the study islands following isolation. For the fragmentation vulnerability index, model selection based on Akaike's information criterion identified natural density at mainland sites as the best correlate of vulnerability to fragmentation, supporting the hypothesis that rare species are most vulnerable to local extinction and will be lost first from fragmented landscapes. In contrast, there was little evidence for an effect of lizards' snout–vent length, clutch size or geographical range size on fragmentation vulnerability. Identification of species traits that render some species more vulnerable to fragmentation than others has important implications for conservation and can be used to aid direct management efforts.

A New Genus of Holoparasitic Orobanchaceae from Mexico

We describe here a novel achlorophyllous parasite on the roots of Hedyosmum mexicanum C. Cordemoy (Chloranthaceae) as a new genus and species, Eremitilla mexicana Yatskievych & J. L. Contreras. The new taxon is currently thought to be endemic to the state of Guerrero, Mexico. It is best classified in the Orobanchaceae, but differs from other members of the family in having 5-ribbed, muricate ovaries containing five parietal placentae, as well as unusual stamens in which the anther is partially embedded in an expanded filament apex. Within the Orobanchaceae, the new taxon is probably related to a group that contains the other American holoparasitic genera. Morphologically, Eremitilla Yatskievych & J. L. Contreras displays a number of autapomorphies, but few identifiable synapomorphies. This presumed relictual taxon presently is known only from a restricted habitat and a very small geographic range, and thus is of conservation concern.

Peromyscus perfulvus (Rodentia: Cricetidae)

Peromyscus perfulvus Osgood, 1945, is a medium-sized rodent with the English name of tawny deermouse. It is 1 of 56 species in the genus Peromyscus and has upperparts of bright cinnamon rufous along with creamy white underparts. This Mexican endemic is distributed from coastal lowlands of Jalisco and Colima to the interior of Michoacan, northernmost Guerrero, and the southwestern corner of the state of Mexico. The species is highly arboreal and inhabits tropical deciduous forest, semideciduous forest, and thorn scrub. Given its small geographic range coupled with microhabitat preferences and the fact that relevant habitats increasingly have been altered, P. perfulvus should be considered to be of conservation concern.

A potential recovery of a population of the sand lizard Liolaemus lutzae Mertens, 1938 in an area within its range: a lizard endemic and threatened with extinction

The endemic and threatened lizard Liolaemus lutzae has a relatively small geographic range restricted to only 200 km of along the coast of Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, which are habitats under intensive anthropic disturbance. At the Barra da Tijuca beach, in Rio de Janeiro city an estimate of the population abundance made in 1991, compared to a previous estimate made in 1984, showed a considerable decrease (about 65%). Most of the decrease was attributed to anthropic disturbances that locally affected the beach vegetation, the species habitat. In this study we present estimates made in 2002 and in 2006 at the same area and compare them with the estimates of 1984 and 1991, using the same methodology in order to make comparable the data from different samplings years and to evaluate the present status of the local population. The estimated indexes of L. lutzae abundance in 2002 and in 2006 were higher than that of 1991. There was a significant increase in the mean number of recorded lizards in 2002 compared to 1991, but the mean number of lizards sighted in 2006 remained stable when compared with that of 2002. Our data based on the index of abundance recorded suggested that the number of L. lutzae at Barra da Tijuca beach recorded increased, which can be indicative of a potential recovery of the local population.

Lake construction has facilitated calanoid copepod invasions in New Zealand

ABSTRACTAim We tested the hypothesis that construction of lakes and ponds has facilitated both inter‐ and intracontinental invasions of calanoid copepod species.Location North Island, New Zealand.Methods We sampled both natural and constructed lakes, ponds and reservoirs for calanoid copepods in the North Island, New Zealand. Species records were supplemented by examining historically collected samples and literature review. Distributions of non‐indigenous calanoid copepod species were compared between constructed and natural waters. Species distributions of native species were compared with the basement terranes (microplates) of the North Island to determine if they possess ‘natural ranges’, and to assess whether construction of new water bodies had altered these distributions.Results Ten calanoid copepod species have been recorded. At least four, and possibly five, of these species are non‐indigenous and were restricted to constructed water bodies. Occurrences in constructed water bodies were not restricted to dammed valleys, but also included ponds constructed on farms, ornamental ponds, disused quarries and retired mines. Four Boeckella species had distributions in natural waters closely related to the North Island basement terranes, and therefore possess ‘natural ranges’ on the island. One species, Boeckella propinqua, was found in natural lakes over a small geographical range only, but has spread with construction of new water bodies to now be widely distributed over the island.Main conclusions Construction of lakes and ponds has facilitated the invasion of calanoid copepod species at both inter‐ and intracontinental scales. Our findings suggest that resident native calanoid copepod species may reduce the risk of invasion to natural water bodies, as similar‐sized species are commonly unable to co‐occur. Spread of the non‐indigenous representatives from constructed into natural waters is inevitable, with established populations providing local propagule supplies for regular introductions.

Measuring the Meltdown: Drivers of Global Amphibian Extinction and Decline

Habitat loss, climate change, over-exploitation, disease and other factors have been hypothesised in the global decline of amphibian biodiversity. However, the relative importance of and synergies among different drivers are still poorly understood. We present the largest global analysis of roughly 45% of known amphibians (2,583 species) to quantify the influences of life history, climate, human density and habitat loss on declines and extinction risk. Multi-model Bayesian inference reveals that large amphibian species with small geographic range and pronounced seasonality in temperature and precipitation are most likely to be Red-Listed by IUCN. Elevated habitat loss and human densities are also correlated with high threat risk. Range size, habitat loss and more extreme seasonality in precipitation contributed to decline risk in the 2,454 species that declined between 1980 and 2004, compared to species that were stable (n = 1,545) or had increased (n = 28). These empirical results show that amphibian species with restricted ranges should be urgently targeted for conservation.

Otolith chemical signature and growth of Chaetodon speculum in coastal areas of New Caledonia

Coral reefs are one of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth. They are currently exposed to increasing levels of anthropogenic perturbations. Several recent reviews point to the lack of good indicators for these perturbations especially to monitor their effects on fish populations or fish assemblages. The SW lagoon of New Caledonia is an ideal location to test indicator species in this context as contrasting sites are present within a small geographical range. This study analysed fish from four sites, one with heavy industrial pollution, another dominated by domestic waste, a third with historic mining activities, and the fourth as a control. The butterfly fish, Chaetodon speculum, was chosen to determine C. speculum's potential as an indicator species due to its link to coral, its sedentary behaviour and its wide geographical distribution. The size distribution, growth rate, age distribution and whole otolith composition were analysed at each site. Age and mean growth rate were analysed from daily increments of the otoliths. The concentrations of eight elements (Li, Mg, Co, Ni, Cu, Rb, Sr, and Ba) were measured by ICP-MS in the otoliths of a subset of individuals. The sites under anthropogenic impact were distinct from the control site by fish size frequencies, age distributions, and the chemical content of their otoliths. The chemical elements Mg, Co, Ni, Cu, and Rb showed differences amongst sites. Fish belonging to the sites furthest from Nouméa could be discriminated in nearly 80% of samples or 60% of the cases when otolith weight or fish age respectively were taken into account. Ni concentrations of the otoliths were also higher in the bays where water concentrations of this element were known to be higher, but these differences were no longer significant once corrected for otolith weight. These results should be mitigated by the fact that: (1) despite significant differences between sites in age distribution and size frequencies there were no differences in growth rates or body condition; (2) differences in age or size were not correlated to perturbation levels; and (3) discrimination between sites based on chemical levels in the otoliths, even though significant, was not sufficient to identify the origin of the fish at a level useful for screening tests. The hypothesis that environmental differences between sites would be reflected in the otolith chemical composition is therefore not fully supported by our results.

Artificial crevice habitats to assess the biodiversity of vagile macro-cryptofauna of subtidal rocky reefs

Reef cryptofauna (animals inhabiting cracks and crevices) represent much of a reef’s biodiversity yet are seldom studied owing to their inaccessibility. Subtidal rocky reefs off Brunswick Heads and Byron Bay in northern New South Wales, Australia support benthic communities ranging from coral-dominated offshore reefs to kelp beds of Ecklonia radiata on inshore reefs. It was hypothesised that differential exposure to river discharge and the East Australian Current, as well as proximity to other reef habitats, may produce differences in recruitment and persistence of cryptofauna between superficially similar reefs within a small geographical range. Artificial crevice habitats were deployed at similar depths on three inshore reefs supporting similar Ecklonia densities. Although the species richness of crevice fauna was similar at all reefs, the species composition differed significantly along with the assemblages recruited in different seasons and to different crevice sizes. Neither reef faunas nor that of varying crevice sizes changed consistently with the seasons, yet all crevices appeared equally accessible to colonists. These results demonstrate the potential inadequacy of classifying reef communities for management of regional biodiversity based on the visual dominance of a few species that may not be as sensitive to environmental variables as many of the less obvious taxa.

Effects of Ecology on the Gastrointestinal Parasites of Alouatta pigra

We examined the effects of demographic and ecological variables on the prevalence of intestinal parasites in free-ranging black howlers, Alouatta pigra, from Belize and Mexico. We collected 253 fecal samples from 50 individually identified monkeys during 2003. We processed all samples via standard centrifugation concentration techniques with sugar and zinc sulfate as flotation media. We used antigen capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays to detect protozoa. We analyzed data for each season separately. The most important factor in predicting whether an Alouatta pigra would be infected with a parasite was its membership in a particular social troop. It was not possible to isolate the effects of human presence, forest fragmentation, primate density, and the absence of Ateles geoffroyi on the prevalence of parasites in Alouatta pigra because the factors covaried. We detected few species of gastrointestinal parasites, possibly due to Alouatta pigra’s arboreal and herbivorous lifestyle and small geographic range. The prevalence of each parasite had a different pattern, with Controrchis sp. (presumed to be C. biliophilus), a fluke, tending to be more prevalent in Alouatta pigra that inhabited disturbed habitats, and Trypanoxyuris minutus, a pinworm, tending to be more prevalent in primates from undisturbed habitats. Giardia sp. tended to be more prevalent in primates at high densities. These results indicated that it is important to examine each parasite’s infection pattern separately to obtain a more accurate representation of the dynamics among the host, parasites, and ecology.

Range Size and Extinction Risk in Forest Birds

Small geographical range size is the single best predictor of threat of extinction in terrestrial species. Knowing how small a species' range has to be before authorities consider it threatened with extinction would allow prediction of a species' risk from continued deforestation and warming climates and provide a baseline for conservation and management strategies aspiring to mitigate these threats. To determine the threshold at which forest-dependent bird species become threatened with extinction, we compared the range sizes of threatened and nonthreatened species. In doing so, we present a simple, repeatable, and practical protocol to quantify range size. We started with species' ranges published in field guides or comparable sources. We then trimmed these ranges, that is, we included only those parts of the ranges that met the species' requirements of elevation and types of forest preferred. Finally, we further trimmed the ranges to the amount of forest cover that remains. This protocol generated an estimate of the remaining suitable range for each species. We compared these range estimates with those from the World Conservation Union Red List. We used the smaller of the two estimates to determine the threshold, 11,000 km2, below which birds should be considered threatened. Species considered threatened that have larger ranges than this qualified under other (nonspatial) red list criteria. We identified a suite of species (18) that have not yet qualified as threatened but that have perilously small ranges--about 11% of the nonthreatened birds we analyzed. These birds are likely at risk of extinction and reevaluation of their status is urgently needed.

Macroecology and extinction risk correlates of frogs

ABSTRACTAim Our aim was to test whether extinction risk of frog species could be predicted from their body size, fecundity or geographical range size. Because small geographical range size is a correlate of extinction risk in many taxa, we also tested hypotheses about correlates of range size in frogs.Location Global.Methods Using a large comparative data set (n = 527 species) compiled from the literature, we performed bivariate and multiple regressions through the origin of independent contrasts to test proposed macroecological patterns and correlates of extinction risk in frogs. We also created minimum adequate models to predict snout–vent length, clutch size, geographical range size and IUCN Red List status in frogs. Parallel non‐phylogenetic analyses were also conducted. We verified the results of the phylogenetic analyses using gridded data accounting for spatial autocorrelation.Results The most threatened frog species tend to have small geographical ranges, although the relationship between range and extinction risk is not linear. In addition, tropical frogs with small clutches have the smallest ranges. Clutch size was strongly positively correlated with geographical range size (r2 = 0.22) and body size (r2 = 0.28).Main conclusions Our results suggest that body size and fecundity only affect extinction risk indirectly through their effect on geographical range size. Thus, although large frogs with small clutches tend to be endangered, there is no comparative evidence that this relationship is direct. If correct, this inference has consequences for conservation strategy: it would be inefficient to allocate conservation resources on the basis of low fecundity or large body size; instead it would be better to protect areas that contain many frog species with small geographical ranges.

Record error and range contraction, real and imagined, in the restricted shrubBanksia hookerianain south‐western Australia

ABSTRACTBanksia hookerianaMeissn. (Proteaceae) is a fire‐killed shrub endemic to the northern sandplains of south‐western Australia that could be described as endangered based on its small geographical range (&lt; 5000 km2) and area of occupancy (∼500 km2). Impacts on the species’ geographical range by land clearance for farming and mining, and by altered fire regime, were investigated using three lines of evidence: records of herbarium collections, a comprehensive field survey of extant populations, and air photo and satellite images revealing the recent history of land clearance and fires. These show that the species’ range has contracted by up to 40% in area and 26% latitudinally through the loss of outlier and range limit populations since 1960. In addition, 22% of remaining native shrubland on the Eneabba sandplain has been lost over this period through clearing for farming and mining, representing further habitat loss forB. hookeriana.Detailed investigation ofB.hookerianaherbarium collections (n = 46) revealed important errors that artificially affected the geographical range of the species and emphasized the importance of close examination of all data captured from collection records. Recorded locations occurred hundreds of kilometres outside the current geographical range of the species in areas with different climate and substrate. Incorrect species identification of herbarium specimens further extended the apparent geographical range of the species. On the other hand, credible records indicated the loss of the species from localities at the limits of its range. Overall, a disconcertingly high proportion of records contained errors that may be difficult to identify without close examination of the original collections and detailed ground‐truthing. Were these records to be used to model climate envelopes, identify potential habitat where the species might occur, or might migrate to either as pests or under climate change scenarios, or to analyse evolutionary or ecological theory (for example) — as is now becoming commonplace — large errors may ensue.